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Condello V, Paulsson JO, Zedenius J, Näsman A, Juhlin CC. Spatial Transcriptomics in a Case of Follicular Thyroid Carcinoma Reveals Clone-Specific Dysregulation of Genes Regulating Extracellular Matrix in the Invading Front. Endocr Pathol 2024; 35:122-133. [PMID: 38280140 PMCID: PMC11176252 DOI: 10.1007/s12022-024-09798-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 01/29/2024]
Abstract
Follicular thyroid carcinoma (FTC) is recognized by its ability to invade the tumor capsule and blood vessels, although the exact molecular signals orchestrating this phenotype remain elusive. In this study, the spatial transcriptional landscape of an FTC is detailed with comparisons between the invasive front and histologically indolent central core tumor areas. The Visium spatial gene expression platform allowed us to interrogate and visualize the whole transcriptome in 2D across formalin-fixated paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue sections. Four different 6 × 6 mm areas of an FTC were scrutinized, including regions with capsular and vascular invasion, capsule-near area without invasion, and a central core area of the tumor. Following successful capturing and sequencing, several expressional clusters were identified with regional variation. Most notably, invasive tumor cell clusters were significantly over-expressing genes associated with pathways interacting with the extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Subsets of these genes (POSTN and DPYSL3) were additionally validated using immunohistochemistry in an independent cohort of follicular thyroid tumors showing a clear gradient pattern from the core to the periphery of the tumor. Moreover, the reconstruction of the evolutionary tree identified the invasive clones as late events in follicular thyroid tumorigenesis. To our knowledge, this is one of the first 2D global transcriptional mappings of FTC using this platform to date. Invasive FTC clones develop in a stepwise fashion and display significant dysregulation of genes associated with the ECM and EMT - thus highlighting important molecular crosstalk for further investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincenzo Condello
- Department of Oncology-Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Johan O Paulsson
- Department of Oncology-Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Trauma and Emergency Surgery, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jan Zedenius
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Breast, Endocrine Tumors, and Sarcoma, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anders Näsman
- Department of Oncology-Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Pathology and Cancer Diagnostics, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - C Christofer Juhlin
- Department of Oncology-Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
- Department of Pathology and Cancer Diagnostics, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Park SY, Kim JT, Park ES, Hwang YS, Yoon HR, Baek KE, Jung H, Yoon SR, Kim BY, Cho HJ, Lee HG. Collapsin response mediator protein 4 enhances the radiosensitivity of colon cancer cells through calcium‑mediated cell signaling. Oncol Rep 2021; 45:6. [PMID: 33655336 PMCID: PMC7877015 DOI: 10.3892/or.2021.7957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Radiation therapy is an effective treatment against various types of cancer, but some radiation‑resistant cancer cells remain a major therapeutic obstacle; thus, understanding radiation resistance mechanisms is essential for cancer treatment. In this study, we established radiation‑resistant colon cancer cell lines and examined the radiation‑induced genetic changes associated with radiation resistance. Using RNA‑sequencing analysis, collapsin response mediator protein 4 (<em>CRMP4</em>) was identified as the candidate gene associated with radiation sensitivity. When cells were exposed to radiation, intracellular Ca2+ influx, collapse of mitochondrial membrane potential, and cytochrome c release into the cytosol were increased, followed by apoptosis induction. Radiation treatment‑ or Ca2+ ionophore A23187‑induced apoptosis was significantly inhibited in <em>CRMP4</em>‑deficient cells, including radiation‑resistant or <em>CRMP4</em>‑shRNA cell lines. Furthermore, treatment of <em>CRMP4</em>‑deficient cells with low levels (<5 µM) of BAPTA‑AM, a Ca2+ chelator, resulted in radiation resistance. Conversely, Ca2+ deficiency induced by a high BAPTA‑AM concentration (>10 µM) resulted in higher cell death in the <em>CRMP4</em>‑depleted cells compared to <em>CRMP4</em>‑expressing control cells. Our results suggest that <em>CRMP4</em> plays an important role in Ca2+‑mediated cell death pathways under radiation exposure and that CRMP4 may be a therapeutical target for colon cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang Yoon Park
- Immunotherapy Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong-Tae Kim
- Immunotherapy Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun Sun Park
- Immunotherapy Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Yo Sep Hwang
- Immunotherapy Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyang Ran Yoon
- Immunotherapy Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyoung Eun Baek
- Immunotherapy Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Haiyoung Jung
- Immunotherapy Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Suk Ran Yoon
- Immunotherapy Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Bo Yeon Kim
- Anticancer Agent Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
- Department of Biomolecular Science, University of Science and Technology (UST), Daejeon 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee Jun Cho
- Immunotherapy Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
- Correspondence to: Dr Hee Gu Lee or Dr Hee Jun Cho, Immunotherapy Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), 125 Gwahak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea, E-mail: , E-mail:
| | - Hee Gu Lee
- Immunotherapy Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
- Department of Biomolecular Science, University of Science and Technology (UST), Daejeon 34113, Republic of Korea
- Correspondence to: Dr Hee Gu Lee or Dr Hee Jun Cho, Immunotherapy Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), 125 Gwahak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea, E-mail: , E-mail:
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Low Incidence of High-Grade Pancreatic Intraepithelial Neoplasia Lesions in a Crmp4 Gene-Deficient Mouse Model of Pancreatic Cancer. Transl Oncol 2020; 13:100746. [PMID: 32105991 PMCID: PMC7044544 DOI: 10.1016/j.tranon.2020.100746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Revised: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PanIN), the most common premalignant lesion of the pancreas, is a histologically well-defined precursor to invasive pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the progression of PanINs have not been fully elucidated. Previously, we demonstrated that the expression of collapsin response mediator protein 4 (CRMP4) in PDAC was associated with poor prognosis. The expression of CRMP4 was also augmented in a pancreatitis mouse model. However, the role of CRMP4 in the progression of PanIN lesions remains uncertain. In the present study, we examined the relationship between CRMP4 expression and progression of PanIN lesions using genetically engineered mouse models. PanIN lesions were induced by peritoneal injection of the cholecystokinin analog caerulein in LSL-KRASG12D; Pdx1-Cre (KC-Crmp4 wild-type, WT) mice and LSL-KRASG12D; Pdx1-Cre; Crmp4−/− (KC-Crmp4 knockout, KO) mice. We analyzed pancreatic tissue sections from these mice and evaluated PanIN grade by hematoxylin and eosin staining. CRMP4 expression was examined and the cellular components assessed by immunohistochemistry using antibodies against CRMP4, CD3, and α-smooth muscle actin (SMA). The incidence of high-grade PanIN in KC-Crmp4 WT mice was higher than that in KC-Crmp4 KO animals. CRMP4 was expressed not only in epithelial cells but also in αSMA-positive cells in stromal areas of PanIN lesions. The CRMP4 expression in stromal areas correlated with PanIN grade in WT mice. These results suggested that the expression of CRMP4 in stromal cells may underlie the incidence or progression of PanIN.
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Matsunuma R, Chan DW, Kim BJ, Singh P, Han A, Saltzman AB, Cheng C, Lei JT, Wang J, Roberto da Silva L, Sahin E, Leng M, Fan C, Perou CM, Malovannaya A, Ellis MJ. DPYSL3 modulates mitosis, migration, and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in claudin-low breast cancer. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:E11978-E11987. [PMID: 30498031 PMCID: PMC6305012 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1810598115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
A Clinical Proteomic Tumor Analysis Consortium (CPTAC) proteogenomic analysis prioritized dihydropyrimidinase-like-3 (DPYSL3) as a multilevel (RNA/protein/phosphoprotein) expression outlier specific to the claudin-low (CLOW) subset of triple-negative breast cancers. A PubMed informatics tool indicated a paucity of data in the context of breast cancer, which further prioritized DPYSL3 for study. DPYSL3 knockdown in DPYSL3-positive ([Formula: see text]) CLOW cell lines demonstrated reduced proliferation, yet enhanced motility and increased expression of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers, suggesting that DPYSL3 is a multifunctional signaling modulator. Slower proliferation in DPYSL3-negative ([Formula: see text]) CLOW cells was associated with accumulation of multinucleated cells, indicating a mitotic defect that was associated with a collapse of the vimentin microfilament network and increased vimentin phosphorylation. DPYSL3 also suppressed the expression of EMT regulators SNAIL and TWIST and opposed p21 activated kinase 2 (PAK2)-dependent migration. However, these EMT regulators in turn induce DPYSL3 expression, suggesting that DPYSL3 participates in negative feedback on EMT. In conclusion, DPYSL3 expression identifies CLOW tumors that will be sensitive to approaches that promote vimentin phosphorylation during mitosis and inhibitors of PAK signaling during migration and EMT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryoichi Matsunuma
- Lester and Sue Smith Breast Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030
- First Department of Surgery, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 431-3192, Japan
- Department of Medical Oncology, Hamamatsu Oncology Center, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 430-0929, Japan
| | - Doug W Chan
- Lester and Sue Smith Breast Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030
| | - Beom-Jun Kim
- Lester and Sue Smith Breast Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030
| | - Purba Singh
- Lester and Sue Smith Breast Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030
| | - Airi Han
- Lester and Sue Smith Breast Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030
- Department of Surgery, Yonsei University Wonju College of Medicine, Wonju 220-701, Korea
| | - Alexander B Saltzman
- Verna and Marrs McLean Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030
| | - Chonghui Cheng
- Lester and Sue Smith Breast Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030
| | - Jonathan T Lei
- Lester and Sue Smith Breast Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030
- Interdepartmental Graduate Program in Translational Biology and Molecular Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030
| | - Junkai Wang
- Lester and Sue Smith Breast Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030
| | - Leonardo Roberto da Silva
- Lester and Sue Smith Breast Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Faculty of Medical Science, State University of Campinas-UNICAMP, Campinas, São Paulo 13083-970, Brazil
| | - Ergun Sahin
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Huffington Center on Aging, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030
| | - Mei Leng
- Verna and Marrs McLean Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030
| | - Cheng Fan
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599
| | - Charles M Perou
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599
| | - Anna Malovannaya
- Verna and Marrs McLean Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030
- Mass Spectrometry Proteomics Core, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030
| | - Matthew J Ellis
- Lester and Sue Smith Breast Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030;
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Yang Y, Jiang Y, Xie D, Liu M, Song N, Zhu J, Fan J, Zhu C. Inhibition of cell-adhesion protein DPYSL3 promotes metastasis of lung cancer. Respir Res 2018; 19:41. [PMID: 29514686 PMCID: PMC5842641 DOI: 10.1186/s12931-018-0740-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2017] [Accepted: 02/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Our previous screening study suggested that the cell-adhesions protein Dihydropyrimidinase-like 3 (DPYSL3) was a candidate metastatic lung cancer related molecule. This study aimed to analyze the correlation between DPYSL3 and metastatic lung cancer. METHODS Stable DPYSL3 knockdown Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) cells were constructed with a retroviral system. Cell migration and invasion assays were performed to determine the role of DPYSL3 in LLC cells' migration and invasion changes. A metastatic lung tumor model in which the stable DPYSL3 knockdown LLC cells were injected through tail vein was used to analyze the role of DPYSL3 in tumor metastasis in vivo. The correlation between DPYSL3 expression and the survival time of lung cancer patients were analyzed in KMPLOT database. RESULTS Knockdown of DPYSL3 promoted the migratory and invasive of LLC cells compared to the control group. Meanwhile, the motility of LLC cells was also increased with the inhibition of DPYSL3. The TGFβ-induced EMT increased when DPYSL3 was inhibited. The expression of EMT markers, TWIST1 and N-cadherin, significantly increased to almost two times with the knockdown of DPYSL3. Furthermore, inhibition of DPYSL3 promoted the progression of metastatic xenograft in C57BL/6 mice. The expression level of DPYSL3 decreased in lung cancer patients with distant metastasis. CONCLUSIONS Knockdown of DPYSL3 promoted the metastatic ability of LLC cells in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Yang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital affiliated Tongji University, 507 Zhengmin road, Shanghai, 200433 China
| | - Yan Jiang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital affiliated Tongji University, 507 Zhengmin road, Shanghai, 200433 China
| | - Dong Xie
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital affiliated Tongji University, 507 Zhengmin road, Shanghai, 200433 China
| | - Ming Liu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital affiliated Tongji University, 507 Zhengmin road, Shanghai, 200433 China
| | - Nan Song
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital affiliated Tongji University, 507 Zhengmin road, Shanghai, 200433 China
| | - Junjie Zhu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital affiliated Tongji University, 507 Zhengmin road, Shanghai, 200433 China
| | - Jiang Fan
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital affiliated Tongji University, 507 Zhengmin road, Shanghai, 200433 China
| | - Chenfang Zhu
- Department of General Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People’s Hospital, Shanghai JiaoTong University School of Medicine, Discipline Construction Research Center of China Hospital Development Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 639 Zhizaoju road, Shanghai, 200011 China
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Basken J, Stuart SA, Kavran AJ, Lee T, Ebmeier CC, Old WM, Ahn NG. Specificity of Phosphorylation Responses to Mitogen Activated Protein (MAP) Kinase Pathway Inhibitors in Melanoma Cells. Mol Cell Proteomics 2017; 17:550-564. [PMID: 29255136 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.ra117.000335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2017] [Revised: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The BRAF-MKK1/2-ERK1/2 pathway is constitutively activated in response to oncogenic mutations of BRAF in many cancer types, including melanoma. Although small molecules that inhibit oncogenic BRAF and MAP kinase kinase (MKK)1/2 have been successful in clinical settings, resistance invariably develops. High affinity inhibitors of ERK1/2 have been shown in preclinical studies to bypass the resistance of melanoma and colon cancer cells to BRAF and MKK1/2 inhibitors, and are thus promising additions to current treatment protocols. But still unknown is how molecular responses to ERK1/2 inhibitors compare with inhibitors currently in clinical use. Here, we employ quantitative phosphoproteomics to evaluate changes in phosphorylation in response to the ERK inhibitors, SCH772984 and GDC0994, and compare these to the clinically used MKK1/2 inhibitor, trametinib. Combined with previous studies measuring phosphoproteomic responses to the MKK1/2 inhibitor, selumetinib, and the BRAF inhibitor, vemurafenib, the outcomes reveal key insights into pathway organization, phosphorylation specificity and off-target effects of these inhibitors. The results demonstrate linearity in signaling from BRAF to MKK1/2 and from MKK1/2 to ERK1/2. They identify likely targets of direct phosphorylation by ERK1/2, as well as inhibitor off-targets, including an off-target regulation of the p38α mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway by the MKK1/2 inhibitor, trametinib, at concentrations used in the literature but higher than in vivo drug concentrations. In addition, several known phosphorylation targets of ERK1/2 are insensitive to MKK or ERK inhibitors, revealing variability in canonical pathway responses between different cell systems. By comparing multiple inhibitors targeted to multiple tiers of protein kinases in the MAPK pathway, we gain insight into regulation and new targets of the oncogenic BRAF driver pathway in cancer cells, and a useful approach for evaluating the specificity of drugs and drug candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel Basken
- From the ‡Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
| | | | - Andrew J Kavran
- From the ‡Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry.,§BioFrontiers Institute
| | - Thomas Lee
- From the ‡Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
| | - Christopher C Ebmeier
- ¶Department of Molecular, Cellular, Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80303
| | - William M Old
- ¶Department of Molecular, Cellular, Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80303
| | - Natalie G Ahn
- From the ‡Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, .,§BioFrontiers Institute
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Chen SL, Cai SR, Zhang XH, Li WF, Zhai ET, Peng JJ, Wu H, Chen CQ, Ma JP, Wang Z, He YL. Targeting CRMP-4 by lentivirus-mediated RNA interference inhibits SW480 cell proliferation and colorectal cancer growth. Exp Ther Med 2016; 12:2003-2008. [PMID: 27698685 PMCID: PMC5038199 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2016.3588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2014] [Accepted: 02/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to investigate the expression level of collapsin response mediator protein 4 (CRMP-4) in human colorectal cancer (CRC) tissue and to evauluate its impact on SW480 cell proliferation, in addition to tumor growth in a mouse xenograft model. Clinical CRC tissue samples were collected to detect the CRMP-4 protein expression levels using western blot and immunohistochemistry analyses. A specific small interfering RNA sequence targeting the CRMP-4 gene (DPYSL3) was constructed and transfected into an SW480 cell line using a lentivirus vector to obtain a stable cell line with low expression of CRMP-4. The effectiveness of the interference was evaluated using western blot and reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction, and the cell proliferation was determined using MTT and BrdU colorimetric methods. Tumor growth was assessed by subcutaneously inoculating the constructed cells into BALB/c nude mice. The protein expression levels of CRMP-4 were markedly increased in colon tumor tissue of the human samples. The proliferation of SW480 cells and the tumor growth rate in nude mice of the si-CPMR-4 group were evidently depressed compared with the si-scramble group. Thus, the present results suggest that CRMP-4 may be involved in the pathogenesis of CRC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Si-Le Chen
- Department of Gastrointestinal and Pancreatic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510080, P.R. China
| | - Shi-Rong Cai
- Department of Gastrointestinal and Pancreatic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510080, P.R. China
| | - Xin-Hua Zhang
- Department of Gastrointestinal and Pancreatic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510080, P.R. China
| | - Wen-Feng Li
- Department of Gastrointestinal and Pancreatic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510080, P.R. China
| | - Er-Tao Zhai
- Department of Gastrointestinal and Pancreatic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510080, P.R. China
| | - Jian-Jun Peng
- Department of Gastrointestinal and Pancreatic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510080, P.R. China
| | - Hui Wu
- Department of Gastrointestinal and Pancreatic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510080, P.R. China
| | - Chuang-Qi Chen
- Department of Gastrointestinal and Pancreatic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510080, P.R. China
| | - Jin-Ping Ma
- Department of Gastrointestinal and Pancreatic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510080, P.R. China
| | - Zhao Wang
- Department of Gastrointestinal and Pancreatic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510080, P.R. China
| | - Yu-Long He
- Department of Gastrointestinal and Pancreatic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510080, P.R. China
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Guo H, Xia B. Collapsin response mediator protein 4 isoforms (CRMP4a and CRMP4b) have opposite effects on cell proliferation, migration, and invasion in gastric cancer. BMC Cancer 2016; 16:565. [PMID: 27475326 PMCID: PMC4967517 DOI: 10.1186/s12885-016-2593-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2016] [Accepted: 07/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Collapsin response mediator proteins (CRMPs) were originally identified in the nervous system and are involved in neuronal development. Similar to CRMP1, CRMP4 has a shorter transcript encoding a short isoform known as CRMP4a, and a longer transcript encoding a long isoform known as CRMP4b. Previous studies have shown that CRMP4a and CRMP4b exhibit opposing functions in neurite outgrowth. In the present study, we aimed to determine whether CRMP4a and CRMP4b have divergent effects in gastric cancer. Methods We first analyzed the mRNA and protein expression levels of CRMP4a and CRMP4b in surgical resected specimens, gastric cancer cell lines and normal gastric epithelial cell line GES-1 by quantitative real-time PCR. Open reading frame and CRMP4b shRNA were generated by lentivirus package and stable cells stably expressing CRMP4a open reading frame and CRMP4b shRNA were constructed. Then the roles of CRMP4a and CRMP4b in cell proliferation, cell cycle progression, apoptosis, migration, invasion, and adhesion were determined by cell proliferation assays, flow cytometry analysis, transwell migration and invasion assays, cell Adhesion Assay, and tumorigenicity assays in nude mice, respectively. Results CRMP4a expression was lower and CRMP4b expression was higher in tumor tissue samples as compared to paired non-tumor tissue samples. Additionally, CRMP4a expression was lower and CRMP4b expression was higher in gastric cancer cell lines than in the normal gastric epithelial cell line GES-1. CRMP4a overexpression and CRMP4b silencing suppressed cell proliferation in vitro and in vivo. Additionally, CRMP4a overexpression and CRMP4b silencing induced a significant G1-phase arrest and a decrease of the percentage of cells in S-phase. Furthermore, CRMP4a overexpression and CRMP4b silencing inhibited cell migration, invasion, and adhesion. However, neither CRMP4a overexpression nor CRMP4b silencing affected apoptosis. Conclusion These results indicate that CRMP4a and CRMP4b have opposite effects on cell proliferation, migration, and invasion in gastric cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haijian Guo
- Department of gastroenterology, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430071, People's Republic of China.,Department of gastroenterology, the Second People's Hospital of Shenzhen, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518035, People's Republic of China
| | - Bing Xia
- Department of gastroenterology, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430071, People's Republic of China.
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Sato S, Nakamura F, Hiroshima Y, Nagashima Y, Kato I, Yamashita N, Goshima Y, Endo I. Caerulein-induced pancreatitis augments the expression and phosphorylation of collapsin response mediator protein 4. JOURNAL OF HEPATO-BILIARY-PANCREATIC SCIENCES 2016; 23:422-31. [PMID: 27207309 DOI: 10.1002/jhbp.361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2016] [Accepted: 05/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chronic pancreatitis is a significant risk factor for pancreatic cancer. Previously, we demonstrated that the pancreatic cancer cells show enhanced expression of collapsin response mediator protein 4 (CRMP4) that strongly correlates with severe venous invasion, liver metastasis, and poor prognosis. However, involvement of CRMP4 in acute or chronic pancreatitis remains unknown. METHODS Acute and chronic pancreatitis mice models were developed by periodic injection of caerulein. The expression levels of CRMP4 and its phosphorylation were examined. RESULTS Elevated CRMP4 levels were observed in the infiltrated lymphocytes as well as in the pancreas parenchyma of both acute and chronic pancreatitis. The expression pattern of phosphorylated CRMP4 was similar to that of CRMP4. Cdk5 partially co-localized with the phosphorylated CRMP4. CONCLUSIONS Pancreatitis induces CRMP4 expression in the pancreas parenchyma and in the infiltrated lymphocytes. Overlapping expression of CRMP4 and Cdk5 may suggest that the Cdk5 is at least, in part, responsible for the phosphorylation of CRMP4. The results suggest that CRMP4 is involved in the inflammatory response in pancreatitis. Understanding the mechanisms of CRMP4 would help us to develop novel therapeutic strategies against acute or chronic pancreatitis, and pancreatic cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sho Sato
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Yokohama City University Graduate School of Medicine, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Fumio Nakamura
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Neurobiology, Yokohama City University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-9 Fukuura, Kanazawa Ward, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-0004, Japan
| | - Yukihiko Hiroshima
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Yokohama City University Graduate School of Medicine, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Yoji Nagashima
- Department of Pathology, Tokyo Women's Medical University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ikuma Kato
- Department of Molecular Pathology, Yokohama City University Graduate School of Medicine, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Naoya Yamashita
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Neurobiology, Yokohama City University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-9 Fukuura, Kanazawa Ward, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-0004, Japan
| | - Yoshio Goshima
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Neurobiology, Yokohama City University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-9 Fukuura, Kanazawa Ward, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-0004, Japan
| | - Itaru Endo
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Yokohama City University Graduate School of Medicine, Yokohama, Japan
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10
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Cai G, Wu D, Wang Z, Xu Z, Wong KB, Ng CF, Chan FL, Yu S. Collapsin response mediator protein-1 (CRMP1) acts as an invasion and metastasis suppressor of prostate cancer via its suppression of epithelial-mesenchymal transition and remodeling of actin cytoskeleton organization. Oncogene 2016; 36:546-558. [PMID: 27321179 PMCID: PMC5290039 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2016.227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2015] [Revised: 04/30/2016] [Accepted: 05/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The cancer cells can acquire migration and invasion capacities during the metastasis process through the developmental regulatory program epithelial–mesenchymal-transition (EMT), and through its reverse process mesenchymal–epithelial transition cancer cells can recolonize at distant metastatic sites. Among the multifaceted effects exerted by this program, reorganization of actin cytoskeleton is the key mechanical drive for the invasive properties gained by cancer cells. Collapsin response mediator protein-1 (CRMP1) is a cytosolic phosphoprotein and originally characterized as the mediator of semaphorin 3A signaling involved in axon differentiation during neural development. Here we report that CRMP1 can act as a suppressor of tumorigenicity and metastasis in prostate cancer cells. We demonstrated that CRMP1 exhibited a decreased expression pattern in high-grade prostate cancer tissues and many prostate cancer cell lines, and its downregulation in cancer cells was attributed to histone deacetylation and direct repression of its gene by the EMT regulator Snail. Functional analyses revealed that CRMP1 suppressed EMT in prostate cancer cells, as its knockdown could trigger EMT and enhance in vitro invasion capacity, whereas its overexpression could inhibit EMT and suppress both in vitro invasion and in vivo metastasis capacities of prostate cancer cells. Moreover, CRMP1 overexpression could significantly confer resistance to EMT induced by Snail or transforming growth factor-β1 in prostatic epithelial cells and prostate cancer cells. Finally, we demonstrated that CRMP1 could associate with actin and WAVE1, an activator of actin nucleation complex Arp2/3, and also its knockdown could stabilize F-actin and trigger the formation of stress fibers in prostate cancer cells. Together, our study shows that CRMP1 acts an EMT and metastasis suppressor in prostate cancer cells via its regulation of actin polymerization and also suggests that targeting the CRMP1-actin signaling in actin organization could be a potential strategy for management of prostate cancer metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Cai
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - D Wu
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Z Wang
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Z Xu
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - K-B Wong
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - C-F Ng
- Department of Surgery, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - F L Chan
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - S Yu
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
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11
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Chen S, Zhang X, Peng J, Zhai E, He Y, Wu H, Chen C, Ma J, Wang Z, Cai S. VEGF promotes gastric cancer development by upregulating CRMP4. Oncotarget 2016; 7:17074-86. [PMID: 26934554 PMCID: PMC4941372 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.7717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2015] [Accepted: 01/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the precise role of CRMP4 in gastric tumor growth and patient survival. The mRNA and protein expression levels of CRMP4, VEGF and VEGFR2 were validated by qRT-PCR and immunohistochemistry. We investigated the effects on tumor growth of overexpression and knockdown of CRMP4 both in vitro and in vivo by constructing stable gastric cell lines using lentiviral-mediated transduction and shRNA interference-mediated knockdown of CRMP4 expression. We further validated the role of the ERK/AKT signaling pathways in VEGF and CRMP4 expression using ERK and PI3K inhibitors. Increased expression of VEGF and CRMP4 were observed in gastric cancer tissues compared with tumor-adjacent tissue. We found that higher CRPM4 expression was associated with lymph node metastasis, TNM stage, tumor differentiation and poorer prognosis in gastric cancer patients. In HGC27 and SGC7901 gastric cancer cells, VEGF upregulated CRMP4 in time and dose-dependent manners. Overexpression of CRMP4 increased cell proliferation, migration and invasion, whereas knockdown of CRMP4 expression had opposite effects. VEGF activated CRMP4 expression in gastric cancer cells, and this effect was significantly inhibited by MAPK and PI3K inhibitors (PD98059 and LY294002). In mice, CRMP4 overexpression also resulted in increased tumor growth. These results suggest that increased CRMP4 expression mediated by the activation of VEGF signaling facilitates gastric tumor growth and metastasis, which may have clinical implications associated with a reduced survival rate in gastric cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sile Chen
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Xinhua Zhang
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Jianjun Peng
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Ertao Zhai
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Yulong He
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Hui Wu
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Chuangqi Chen
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Jinping Ma
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Zhao Wang
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Shirong Cai
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong Province, China
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12
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Oya H, Kanda M, Sugimoto H, Shimizu D, Takami H, Hibino S, Hashimoto R, Okamura Y, Yamada S, Fujii T, Nakayama G, Koike M, Nomoto S, Fujiwara M, Kodera Y. Dihydropyrimidinase-like 3 is a putative hepatocellular carcinoma tumor suppressor. J Gastroenterol 2015; 50:590-600. [PMID: 25173447 DOI: 10.1007/s00535-014-0993-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2014] [Accepted: 08/17/2014] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) may relapse after curative resection. Sensitive biomarkers for HCC are required to enhance disease management. Dihydropyrimidinase-like 3 (DPYSL3) suppresses cell proliferation and tumorigenicity of certain malignancies; however, its role in HCC is unknown. METHODS The expression levels of DPYSL3 and genes encoding potential interacting proteins vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), focal adhesion kinase (FAK), ezrin, and cellular src were determined using RT-PCR. Further, we determined the methylation status of the DPYSL3 promoter in HCC cells lines and the effect of inhibiting DPYSL3 expression on their phenotype. DPYSL3 expression was determined in 151 pairs of resected liver tissues. RESULTS DPYSL3 mRNA levels were down-regulated in most HCC cell lines with DPYSL3 promoter hypermethylation, and expression was restored after demethylation. DPYSL3 expression levels inversely correlated with those of VEGF and FAK. Knockdown of DPYSL3 significantly increased migration and the invasive properties of HCC cells. The mean level of DPYSL3 mRNA was significantly lower in HCC tissues compared with corresponding noncancerous tissues. The expression patterns of DPYSL3 mRNA and protein were consistent. DPYSL3 mRNA expression in HCC tissues inversely correlated with preoperative serum tumor markers and was significantly lower in patients with extrahepatic recurrences. Disease-specific and recurrence-free survival was significantly shorter in patients with down-regulated DPYSL3 expression. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate that DPYSL3 is a putative HCC tumor suppressor, and promoter hypermethylation potently regulates DPYSL3 transcription. Down-regulation of DPYSL3 expression in HCC tissues may serve as a predictive biomarker for HCC after curative resection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hisaharu Oya
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery (Surgery II), Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, 65 Tsurumai-cho, Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8550, Japan
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13
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Ponnusamy R, Lebedev AA, Pahlow S, Lohkamp B. Crystal structure of human CRMP-4: correction of intensities for lattice-translocation disorder. ACTA CRYSTALLOGRAPHICA. SECTION D, BIOLOGICAL CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 2014; 70:1680-94. [PMID: 24914979 PMCID: PMC4051505 DOI: 10.1107/s1399004714006634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2014] [Accepted: 03/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Collapsin response mediator proteins (CRMPs) are cytosolic phosphoproteins that are mainly involved in neuronal cell development. In humans, the CRMP family comprises five members. Here, crystal structures of human CRMP-4 in a truncated and a full-length version are presented. The latter was determined from two types of crystals, which were either twinned or partially disordered. The crystal disorder was coupled with translational NCS in ordered domains and manifested itself with a rather sophisticated modulation of intensities. The data were demodulated using either the two-lattice treatment of lattice-translocation effects or a novel method in which demodulation was achieved by independent scaling of several groups of intensities. This iterative protocol does not rely on any particular parameterization of the modulation coefficients, but uses the current refined structure as a reference. The best results in terms of R factors and map correlation coefficients were obtained using this new method. The determined structures of CRMP-4 are similar to those of other CRMPs. Structural comparison allowed the confirmation of known residues, as well as the identification of new residues, that are important for the homo- and hetero-oligomerization of these proteins, which are critical to nerve-cell development. The structures provide further insight into the effects of medically relevant mutations of the DPYSL-3 gene encoding CRMP-4 and the putative enzymatic activities of CRMPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajesh Ponnusamy
- Instituto de Technologia Química e Biológica, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Avenida da República, EAN, 2781-901 Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Andrey A. Lebedev
- Research Complex at Harwell, STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Didcot OX11 0FA, England
| | - Steffen Pahlow
- Biozentrum Klein Flottbek, University of Hamburg, Ohnhorststrasse 18, 22609 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Bernhard Lohkamp
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Tomtebodavägen 6, 4tr, 17177 Stockholm, Sweden
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14
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Tan F, Thiele CJ, Li Z. Collapsin response mediator proteins: Potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers in cancers (Review). Oncol Lett 2014; 7:1333-1340. [PMID: 24765134 PMCID: PMC3997700 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2014.1909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2013] [Accepted: 02/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The collapsin response mediator proteins (CRMPs) were originally identified as mediators of semaphorin 3A signaling and neuronal differentiation. The CRMP family consists of five homologous cytosolic proteins, CRMP1-5. Altered expression levels of CRMPs have been observed in several malignant tumors, including lung, breast, colorectal, prostate, pancreatic and neuroendocrine lung cancer. The aim of the current study was to review the recent progress achieved in understanding the association between the different levels of CRMP expression in tumors and their involvement in pathological functions, such as tumor metastasis, disease progression, subtype differentiation and clinical outcome, to address the potential value of CRMPs as biomarkers for the diagnosis and prognosis of cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Tan
- Department of Neurology, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110004, P.R. China
| | - Carol J Thiele
- Cell and Molecular Biology Section, Pediatric Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Zhijie Li
- Research Center for Medicine, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110004, P.R. China
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15
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Tan F, Wahdan-Alaswad R, Yan S, Thiele CJ, Li Z. Dihydropyrimidinase-like protein 3 expression is negatively regulated by MYCN and associated with clinical outcome in neuroblastoma. Cancer Sci 2013; 104:1586-92. [PMID: 24011394 DOI: 10.1111/cas.12278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2013] [Revised: 08/15/2013] [Accepted: 08/28/2013] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Dihydropyrimidinase-like proteins (DPYSLs) are a family of proteins developmentally regulated during maturation of the nervous system. Recently, members of the DPYSL family have been reported to be involved in cancer with low expression of DPYSL1 correlating with poor clinical outcomes in non-small cell lung cancer and functioning as a metastasis suppressor. Neuroblastoma (NB) is a tumor derived from precursor cells of the sympathetic nervous system and is the most common solid tumor in childhood. So far the biological functions of DPYSLs in NB remain elusive. Studying the potential roles of DPYSLs in NB may give us new insights into NB tumorigenesis. In the present study, using antibodies specific to different members of the DPYSL family, DPYSL1, DPYSL2 and DPYSL3, we investigated regulation of their expression and their subcellular distribution during retinoic acid (RA)-induced differentiation in NB cells. The correlation between DPYSLs and MYCN, a biomarker for poor prognosis of NB, was evaluated. We found that DPYSL3 levels increased during RA-induced cell differentiation. Downregulation of MYCN by small interfering RNA (siRNA) increased DPYSL3 levels, while upregulation of MYCN in non-MYCN NB cells decreased DPYSL3 levels. DPYSL1 and DPYSL2 expression didn't change during RA treatment or under different expression levels of MYCN. Moreover, a high level of DPYSL3 mRNA, but not that of DPYSL1 or DPYSL2 mRNA, was detected in tumors from advanced-stage NB that have a better survival. These data indicated that DPYSL3, not DPYSL1 or DPYSL2, is negatively regulated by MYCN and may be used as a potential biomarker for NB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Tan
- Department of Neurology, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China; Cell & Molecular Biology Section, Pediatric Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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