1
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Noda NN. Structural view on autophagosome formation. FEBS Lett 2024; 598:84-106. [PMID: 37758522 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.14742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2023] [Revised: 09/02/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
Autophagy is a conserved intracellular degradation system in eukaryotes, involving the sequestration of degradation targets into autophagosomes, which are subsequently delivered to lysosomes (or vacuoles in yeasts and plants) for degradation. In budding yeast, starvation-induced autophagosome formation relies on approximately 20 core Atg proteins, grouped into six functional categories: the Atg1/ULK complex, the phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase complex, the Atg9 transmembrane protein, the Atg2-Atg18/WIPI complex, the Atg8 lipidation system, and the Atg12-Atg5 conjugation system. Additionally, selective autophagy requires cargo receptors and other factors, including a fission factor, for specific sequestration. This review covers the 30-year history of structural studies on core Atg proteins and factors involved in selective autophagy, examining X-ray crystallography, NMR, and cryo-EM techniques. The molecular mechanisms of autophagy are explored based on protein structures, and future directions in the structural biology of autophagy are discussed, considering the advancements in the era of AlphaFold.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobuo N Noda
- Institute for Genetic Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN), Tokyo, Japan
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2
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Abstract
Macroautophagy and microautophagy are highly conserved eukaryotic cellular processes that degrade cytoplasmic material in lysosomes. Both pathways involve characteristic membrane dynamics regulated by autophagy-related proteins and other molecules, some of which are shared between the two pathways. Over the past few years, the application of new technologies, such as cryo-electron microscopy, coevolution-based structural prediction and in vitro reconstitution, has revealed the functions of individual autophagy gene products, especially in autophagy induction, membrane reorganization and cargo recognition. Concomitantly, mutations in autophagy genes have been linked to human disorders, particularly neurodegenerative diseases, emphasizing the potential pathogenic implications of autophagy defects. Accumulating genome data have also illuminated the evolution of autophagy genes within eukaryotes as well as their transition from possible ancestral elements in prokaryotes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayashi Yamamoto
- grid.26999.3d0000 0001 2151 536XDepartment of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan ,grid.410821.e0000 0001 2173 8328Department of Molecular Oncology, Institute for Advanced Medical Sciences, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Sidi Zhang
- grid.26999.3d0000 0001 2151 536XDepartment of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Noboru Mizushima
- grid.26999.3d0000 0001 2151 536XDepartment of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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3
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Cai YY, Li L, Zhu XM, Lu JP, Liu XH, Lin FC. The crucial role of the regulatory mechanism of the Atg1/ULK1 complex in fungi. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:1019543. [PMID: 36386635 PMCID: PMC9643702 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1019543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy, an evolutionarily conserved cellular degradation pathway in eukaryotes, is hierarchically regulated by autophagy-related genes (Atgs). The Atg1/ULK1 complex is the most upstream factor involved in autophagy initiation. Here,we summarize the recent studies on the structure and molecular mechanism of the Atg1/ULK1 complex in autophagy initiation, with a special focus on upstream regulation and downstream effectors of Atg1/ULK1. The roles of pathogenicity and autophagy aspects in Atg1/ULK1 complexes of various pathogenic hosts, including plants, insects, and humans, are also discussed in this work based on recent research findings. We establish a framework to study how the Atg1/ULK1 complex integrates the signals that induce autophagy in accordance with fungus to mammalian autophagy regulation pathways. This framework lays the foundation for studying the deeper molecular mechanisms of the Atg1 complex in pathogenic fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying-Ying Cai
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Treats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-products, Institute of Plant Protection and Microbiology, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou, China
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Treats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-products, Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Lin Li
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Treats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-products, Institute of Plant Protection and Microbiology, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xue-Ming Zhu
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Treats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-products, Institute of Plant Protection and Microbiology, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jian-Ping Lu
- College of Life Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiao-Hong Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Treats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-products, Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Fu-Cheng Lin
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Treats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-products, Institute of Plant Protection and Microbiology, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou, China
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Treats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-products, Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Fu-Cheng Lin,
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4
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Molecular Mechanism and Regulation of Autophagy and Its Potential Role in Epilepsy. Cells 2022; 11:cells11172621. [PMID: 36078029 PMCID: PMC9455075 DOI: 10.3390/cells11172621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2022] [Revised: 08/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is an evolutionally conserved degradation mechanism for maintaining cell homeostasis whereby cytoplasmic components are wrapped in autophagosomes and subsequently delivered to lysosomes for degradation. This process requires the concerted actions of multiple autophagy-related proteins and accessory regulators. In neurons, autophagy is dynamically regulated in different compartments including soma, axons, and dendrites. It determines the turnover of selected materials in a spatiotemporal control manner, which facilitates the formation of specialized neuronal functions. It is not surprising, therefore, that dysfunctional autophagy occurs in epilepsy, mainly caused by an imbalance between excitation and inhibition in the brain. In recent years, much attention has been focused on how autophagy may cause the development of epilepsy. In this article, we overview the historical landmarks and distinct types of autophagy, recent progress in the core machinery and regulation of autophagy, and biological roles of autophagy in homeostatic maintenance of neuronal structures and functions, with a particular focus on synaptic plasticity. We also discuss the relevance of autophagy mechanisms to the pathophysiology of epileptogenesis.
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5
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Huang W, Ma D, Hao X, Li J, Xia L, Zhang E, Wang P, Wang M, Guo F, Wang Y, Ni D, Zhao H. CsATG101 Delays Growth and Accelerates Senescence Response to Low Nitrogen Stress in Arabidopsis thaliana. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:880095. [PMID: 35620698 PMCID: PMC9127664 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.880095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
For tea plants, nitrogen (N) is a foundational element and large quantities of N are required during periods of roundly vigorous growth. However, the fluctuation of N in the tea garden could not always meet the dynamic demand of the tea plants. Autophagy, an intracellular degradation process for materials recycling in eukaryotes, plays an important role in nutrient remobilization upon stressful conditions and leaf senescence. Studies have proven that numerous autophagy-related genes (ATGs) are involved in N utilization efficiency in Arabidopsis thaliana and other species. Here, we identified an ATG gene, CsATG101, and characterized the potential functions in response to N in A. thaliana. The expression patterns of CsATG101 in four categories of aging gradient leaves among 24 tea cultivars indicated that autophagy mainly occurred in mature leaves at a relatively high level. Further, the in planta heterologous expression of CsATG101 in A. thaliana was employed to investigate the response of CsATG101 to low N stress. The results illustrated a delayed transition from vegetative to reproductive growth under normal N conditions, while premature senescence under N deficient conditions in transgenic plants vs. the wild type. The expression profiles of 12 AtATGs confirmed the autophagy process, especially in mature leaves of transgenic plants. Also, the relatively high expression levels for AtAAP1, AtLHT1, AtGLN1;1, and AtNIA1 in mature leaves illustrated that the mature leaves act as the source leaves in transgenic plants. Altogether, the findings demonstrated that CsATG101 is a candidate gene for improving annual fresh tea leaves yield under both deficient and sufficient N conditions via the autophagy process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Huang
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology of Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Danni Ma
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology of Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Xulei Hao
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology of Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Jia Li
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology of Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Li Xia
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology of Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - E. Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology of Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Pu Wang
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology of Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Mingle Wang
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology of Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Fei Guo
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology of Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yu Wang
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology of Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Dejiang Ni
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology of Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Hua Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology of Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
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6
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Zhang S, Hama Y, Mizushima N. The evolution of autophagy proteins - diversification in eukaryotes and potential ancestors in prokaryotes. J Cell Sci 2021; 134:270774. [PMID: 34228793 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.233742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a degradative pathway for cytoplasmic constituents, and is conserved across eukaryotes. Autophagy-related (ATG) genes have undergone extensive multiplications and losses in different eukaryotic lineages, resulting in functional diversification and specialization. Notably, even though bacteria and archaea do not possess an autophagy pathway, they do harbor some remote homologs of Atg proteins, suggesting that preexisting proteins were recruited when the autophagy pathway developed during eukaryogenesis. In this Review, we summarize our current knowledge on the distribution of Atg proteins within eukaryotes and outline the major multiplication and loss events within the eukaryotic tree. We also discuss the potential prokaryotic homologs of Atg proteins identified to date, emphasizing the evolutionary relationships and functional differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sidi Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Yutaro Hama
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Noboru Mizushima
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
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7
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Triolo M, Hood DA. Manifestations of Age on Autophagy, Mitophagy and Lysosomes in Skeletal Muscle. Cells 2021; 10:cells10051054. [PMID: 33946883 PMCID: PMC8146406 DOI: 10.3390/cells10051054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Revised: 04/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Sarcopenia is the loss of both muscle mass and function with age. Although the molecular underpinnings of sarcopenia are not fully understood, numerous pathways are implicated, including autophagy, in which defective cargo is selectively identified and degraded at the lysosome. The specific tagging and degradation of mitochondria is termed mitophagy, a process important for the maintenance of an organelle pool that functions efficiently in energy production and with relatively low reactive oxygen species production. Emerging data, yet insufficient, have implicated various steps in this pathway as potential contributors to the aging muscle atrophy phenotype. Included in this is the lysosome, the end-stage organelle possessing a host of proteolytic and degradative enzymes, and a function devoted to the hydrolysis and breakdown of defective molecular complexes and organelles. This review provides a summary of our current understanding of how the autophagy-lysosome system is regulated in aging muscle, highlighting specific areas where knowledge gaps exist. Characterization of the autophagy pathway with a particular focus on the lysosome will undoubtedly pave the way for the development of novel therapeutic strategies to combat age-related muscle loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Triolo
- Muscle Health Research Centre, York University, Toronto, ON M3J 1P3, Canada;
- School of Kinesiology and Health Science, York University, Toronto, ON M3J 1P3, Canada
| | - David A. Hood
- Muscle Health Research Centre, York University, Toronto, ON M3J 1P3, Canada;
- School of Kinesiology and Health Science, York University, Toronto, ON M3J 1P3, Canada
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +(416)-736-2100 (ext. 66640)
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8
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Noda NN, Wang Z, Zhang H. Liquid-liquid phase separation in autophagy. J Cell Biol 2021; 219:151909. [PMID: 32603410 PMCID: PMC7401820 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.202004062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Revised: 05/27/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Liquid–liquid phase separation (LLPS) compartmentalizes and concentrates biomacromolecules into distinct condensates. Liquid-like condensates can transition into gel and solid states, which are essential for fulfilling their different functions. LLPS plays important roles in multiple steps of autophagy, mediating the assembly of autophagosome formation sites, acting as an unconventional modulator of TORC1-mediated autophagy regulation, and triaging protein cargos for degradation. Gel-like, but not solid, protein condensates can trigger formation of surrounding autophagosomal membranes. Stress and pathological conditions cause aberrant phase separation and transition of condensates, which can evade surveillance by the autophagy machinery. Understanding the mechanisms underlying phase separation and transition will provide potential therapeutic targets for protein aggregation diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobuo N Noda
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Zheng Wang
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Hong Zhang
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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9
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Cheung YWS, Nam SE, Yip CK. Recent Advances in Single-Particle Electron Microscopic Analysis of Autophagy Degradation Machinery. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E8051. [PMID: 33126766 PMCID: PMC7663694 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21218051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 10/25/2020] [Accepted: 10/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Macroautophagy (also known as autophagy) is a major pathway for selective degradation of misfolded/aggregated proteins and damaged organelles and non-selective degradation of cytoplasmic constituents for the generation of power during nutrient deprivation. The multi-step degradation process, from sequestering cytoplasmic cargo into the double-membrane vesicle termed autophagosome to the delivery of the autophagosome to the lysosome or lytic vacuole for breakdown, is mediated by the core autophagy machinery composed of multiple Atg proteins, as well as the divergent sequence family of selective autophagy receptors. Single-particle electron microscopy (EM) is a molecular imaging approach that has become an increasingly important tool in the structural characterization of proteins and macromolecular complexes. This article summarizes the contributions single-particle EM have made in advancing our understanding of the core autophagy machinery and selective autophagy receptors. We also discuss current technical challenges and roadblocks, as well as look into the future of single-particle EM in autophagy research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Calvin K. Yip
- Life Sciences Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada; (Y.W.S.C.); (S.-E.N.)
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10
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Lai LTF, Ye H, Zhang W, Jiang L, Lau WCY. Structural Biology and Electron Microscopy of the Autophagy Molecular Machinery. Cells 2019; 8:E1627. [PMID: 31842460 PMCID: PMC6952983 DOI: 10.3390/cells8121627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 12/06/2019] [Accepted: 12/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a highly regulated bulk degradation process that plays a key role in the maintenance of cellular homeostasis. During autophagy, a double membrane-bound compartment termed the autophagosome is formed through de novo nucleation and assembly of membrane sources to engulf unwanted cytoplasmic components and targets them to the lysosome or vacuole for degradation. Central to this process are the autophagy-related (ATG) proteins, which play a critical role in plant fitness, immunity, and environmental stress response. Over the past few years, cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) and single-particle analysis has matured into a powerful and versatile technique for the structural determination of protein complexes at high resolution and has contributed greatly to our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying autophagosome biogenesis. Here we describe the plant-specific ATG proteins and summarize recent structural and mechanistic studies on the protein machinery involved in autophagy initiation with an emphasis on those by single-particle analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louis Tung Faat Lai
- School of Life Sciences, Centre for Cell and Developmental Biology and State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China
| | - Hao Ye
- School of Life Sciences, Centre for Cell and Developmental Biology and State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China
| | - Wenxin Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, Centre for Cell and Developmental Biology and State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China
| | - Liwen Jiang
- School of Life Sciences, Centre for Cell and Developmental Biology and State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China
- CUHK Shenzhen Research Institute, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen 518057, China
| | - Wilson Chun Yu Lau
- School of Life Sciences, Centre for Cell and Developmental Biology and State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China
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11
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Zientara-Rytter K, Subramani S. Mechanistic Insights into the Role of Atg11 in Selective Autophagy. J Mol Biol 2019; 432:104-122. [PMID: 31238043 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2019.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2019] [Revised: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Macroautophagy (referred to hereafter as autophagy) is an intracellular degradation pathway in which the formation of a double-membrane vesicle called the autophagosome is a key event in the transport of multiple cytoplasmic cargo (e.g., proteins, protein aggregates, lipid droplets or organelles) to the vacuole (lysosome in mammals) for degradation and recycling. During this process, autophagosomes are formed de novo by membrane fusion events leading to phagophore formation initiated at the phagophore assembly site. In yeast, Atg11 and Atg17 function as protein scaffolds, essential for selective and non-selective types of autophagy, respectively. While Atg17 functions in non-selective autophagy are well-defined in the literature, less attention is concentrated on recent findings regarding the roles of Atg11 in selective autophagy. Here, we summarize current knowledge about the Atg11 scaffold protein and review recent findings in the context of its role in selective autophagy initiation and autophagosome formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Zientara-Rytter
- Section of Molecular Biology, Division of Biological Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
| | - Suresh Subramani
- Section of Molecular Biology, Division of Biological Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
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12
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Loeffler DA. Influence of Normal Aging on Brain Autophagy: A Complex Scenario. Front Aging Neurosci 2019; 11:49. [PMID: 30914945 PMCID: PMC6421305 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2019.00049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Misfolded proteins are pathological findings in some chronic neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's diseases. Aging is a major risk factor for these disorders, suggesting that the mechanisms responsible for clearing misfolded proteins from the brain, the ubiquitin-proteasome system and the autophagy-lysosomal pathway, may decline with age. Although autophagic mechanisms have been found to decrease with age in many experimental models, whether they do so in the brain is unclear. This review examines the literature with regard to age-associated changes in macroautophagy and chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA) in the central nervous system (CNS). Beclin 1, LC3-II, and the LC3-II/LC3-I ratio have frequently been used to examine changes in macroautophagic activity, while lamp2a and HSPA8 (also known as hsc70) have been used to measure CMA activity. Three gene expression analyses found evidence for an age-related downregulation of macroautophagy in human brain, but no published studies were found of age-related changes in CMA in human brain, although cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of HSPA8 were reported to decrease with age. Most studies of age-related changes in brain autophagy in experimental animals have found age-related declines in macroautophagy, and macroautophagy is necessary for normal lifespan in Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila, and mice. However, the few studies of age-related changes in brain CMA in experimental animals have produced conflicting results. Investigations of the influence of aging on macroautophagy in experimental animals in systems other than the CNS have generally found an age-related decrease in Beclin 1, but conflicting results for LC3-II and the LC3-II/LC3-I ratio, while CMA decreases with age in most models. CONCLUSION: while indirect evidence suggests that brain autophagy may decrease with normal aging, this issue has not been investigated sufficiently, particularly in human brain. Measuring autophagic activity in the brain can be challenging because of differences in basal autophagic activity between experimental models, and the inability to include lysosomal inhibitors when measuring the LC3-II/LC3-I ratio in postmortem specimens. If autophagy does decrease in the brain with aging, then pharmacological interventions and/or lifestyle alterations to slow this decline could reduce the risk of developing age-related neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Loeffler
- Beaumont Research Institute, Department of Neurology, Beaumont Health, Royal Oak, MI, United States
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13
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Guo T, Nan Z, Miao C, Jin X, Yang W, Wang Z, Tu Y, Bao H, Lyu J, Zheng H, Deng Q, Guo P, Xi Y, Yang X, Ge W. The autophagy-related gene Atg101 in Drosophila regulates both neuron and midgut homeostasis. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:5666-5676. [PMID: 30760524 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra118.006069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2018] [Revised: 02/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Atg101 is an autophagy-related gene identified in worms, flies, mice, and mammals, which encodes a protein that functions in autophagosome formation by associating with the ULK1-Atg13-Fip200 complex. In the last few years, the critical role of Atg101 in autophagy has been well-established through biochemical studies and the determination of its protein structure. However, Atg101's physiological role, both during development and in adulthood, remains less understood. Here, we describe the generation and characterization of an Atg101 loss-of-function mutant in Drosophila and report on the roles of Atg101 in maintaining tissue homeostasis in both adult brains and midguts. We observed that homozygous or hemizygous Atg101 mutants were semi-lethal, with only some of them surviving into adulthood. Both developmental and starvation-induced autophagy processes were defective in the Atg101 mutant animals, and Atg101 mutant adult flies had a significantly shorter lifespan and displayed a mobility defect. Moreover, we observed the accumulation of ubiquitin-positive aggregates in Atg101 mutant brains, indicating a neuronal defect. Interestingly, Atg101 mutant adult midguts were shorter and thicker and exhibited abnormal morphology with enlarged enterocytes. Detailed analysis also revealed that the differentiation from intestinal stem cells to enterocytes was impaired in these midguts. Cell type-specific rescue experiments disclosed that Atg101 had a function in enterocytes and limited their growth. In summary, the results of our study indicate that Drosophila Atg101 is essential for tissue homeostasis in both adult brains and midguts. We propose that Atg101 may have a role in age-related processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Guo
- From the Division of Human Reproduction and Developmental Genetics, Women's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the Institute of Genetics, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058, and
| | - Zi Nan
- From the Division of Human Reproduction and Developmental Genetics, Women's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the Institute of Genetics, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058, and
| | - Chen Miao
- From the Division of Human Reproduction and Developmental Genetics, Women's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the Institute of Genetics, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the Department of Genetics, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058
| | - Xiaoye Jin
- From the Division of Human Reproduction and Developmental Genetics, Women's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the Institute of Genetics, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the Department of Genetics, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058
| | - Weiwei Yang
- From the Division of Human Reproduction and Developmental Genetics, Women's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the Institute of Genetics, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the Department of Genetics, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058
| | - Zehua Wang
- From the Division of Human Reproduction and Developmental Genetics, Women's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the Institute of Genetics, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058, and
| | - Yinqi Tu
- From the Division of Human Reproduction and Developmental Genetics, Women's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the Institute of Genetics, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058, and
| | - Hongcun Bao
- From the Division of Human Reproduction and Developmental Genetics, Women's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the Institute of Genetics, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058, and
| | - Jialan Lyu
- From the Division of Human Reproduction and Developmental Genetics, Women's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the Institute of Genetics, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the Department of Genetics, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058
| | - Huimei Zheng
- From the Division of Human Reproduction and Developmental Genetics, Women's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the Institute of Genetics, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the Department of Genetics, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058
| | - Qiannan Deng
- From the Division of Human Reproduction and Developmental Genetics, Women's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the Institute of Genetics, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058, and
| | - Pengfei Guo
- From the Division of Human Reproduction and Developmental Genetics, Women's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the Institute of Genetics, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058, and
| | - Yongmei Xi
- From the Division of Human Reproduction and Developmental Genetics, Women's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the Institute of Genetics, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the Department of Genetics, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058
| | - Xiaohang Yang
- From the Division of Human Reproduction and Developmental Genetics, Women's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the Institute of Genetics, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the Department of Genetics, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058
| | - Wanzhong Ge
- From the Division of Human Reproduction and Developmental Genetics, Women's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058, .,the Institute of Genetics, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058.,the Department of Genetics, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 310058
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14
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Kim BW, Jin Y, Kim J, Kim JH, Jung J, Kang S, Kim IY, Kim J, Cheong H, Song HK. The C-terminal region of ATG101 bridges ULK1 and PtdIns3K complex in autophagy initiation. Autophagy 2018; 14:2104-2116. [PMID: 30081750 PMCID: PMC6984762 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2018.1504716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2017] [Revised: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The initiation of macroautophagy/autophagy is tightly regulated by the upstream ULK1 kinase complex, which affects many downstream factors including the PtdIns3K complex. The phosphorylation of the right position at the right time on downstream molecules is governed by proper complex formation. One component of the ULK1 complex, ATG101, known as an accessory protein, is a stabilizer of ATG13 in cells. The WF finger region of ATG101 plays an important role in the recruitment of WIPI1 (WD repeat domain, phosphoinositide interacting protein 1) and ZFYVE1 (zinc finger FYVE-type containing 1). Here, we report that the C-terminal region identified in the structure of the human ATG101-ATG13HORMA complex is responsible for the binding of the PtdIns3K complex. This region adopts a β-strand conformation in free ATG101, but either an α-helix or random coil in our ATG101-ATG13HORMA complex, which protrudes from the core and interacts with other molecules. The C-terminal deletion of ATG101 shows a significant defect in the interaction with PtdIns3K components and subsequently impairs autophagosome formation. This result clearly presents an additional role of ATG101 for bridging the ULK1 and PtdIns3K complexes in the mammalian autophagy process. Abbreviations: ATG: autophagy related; BECN1: beclin 1; GFP: green fluorescent protein; HORMA: Hop1p/Rev7p/MAD2; HsATG13HORMA: HORMA domain of ATG13 from Homo sapiens; KO: knockout; MAD2: mitotic arrest deficient 2 like 1; MAP1LC3/LC3: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3; PIK3C3/VPS34: phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase catalytic subunit type 3; PIK3R4/VPS15: phosphoinositide-3-kinase regulatory subunit 4; PtdIns3K: phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; RB1CC1/FIP200: RB1 inducible coiled-coil 1; SAXS: small-angle X-ray scattering; ScAtg13HORMA: HORMA domain of Atg13 from Sccharomyces cerevisiae; SEC-SAXS: size-exclusion chromatography with small-angle X-ray scattering; SpAtg13HORMA: HORMA domain of Atg13 from Schizosaccharomyces pombe; SQSTM1/p62: sequestosome 1; ULK1: unc51-like autophagy activating kinase 1; UVRAG: UV radiation resistance associated; WIPI1: WD repeat domain: phosphoinositide interacting 1; ZFYVE1/DFCP1: zinc finger FYVE-type containing 1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Byeong-Won Kim
- Department of Life Sciences, Korea University, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Yunjung Jin
- Department of Life Sciences, Korea University, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jiyea Kim
- Department of Cancer Biomedical Science, National Cancer Center Graduate School of Cancer Science and Policy, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Tumor Microenvironment Branch, Research Institute, National Cancer Center, Goyang, Republic of Korea
| | - Jun Hoe Kim
- Department of Life Sciences, Korea University, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Juneyoung Jung
- Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Seongman Kang
- Department of Life Sciences, Korea University, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Ick Young Kim
- Department of Life Sciences, Korea University, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Joungmok Kim
- Department of Oral Biochemistry and Molecular BiologySchool of Dentistry, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Heesun Cheong
- Department of Cancer Biomedical Science, National Cancer Center Graduate School of Cancer Science and Policy, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Tumor Microenvironment Branch, Research Institute, National Cancer Center, Goyang, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Kyu Song
- Department of Life Sciences, Korea University, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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15
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Wallot-Hieke N, Verma N, Schlütermann D, Berleth N, Deitersen J, Böhler P, Stuhldreier F, Wu W, Seggewiß S, Peter C, Gohlke H, Mizushima N, Stork B. Systematic analysis of ATG13 domain requirements for autophagy induction. Autophagy 2018; 14:743-763. [PMID: 29173006 PMCID: PMC6070014 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2017.1387342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Macroautophagy/autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved cellular process whose induction is regulated by the ULK1 protein kinase complex. The subunit ATG13 functions as an adaptor protein by recruiting ULK1, RB1CC1 and ATG101 to a core ULK1 complex. Furthermore, ATG13 directly binds both phospholipids and members of the Atg8 family. The central involvement of ATG13 in complex formation makes it an attractive target for autophagy regulation. Here, we analyzed known interactions of ATG13 with proteins and lipids for their potential modulation of ULK1 complex formation and autophagy induction. Targeting the ATG101-ATG13 interaction showed the strongest autophagy-inhibitory effect, whereas the inhibition of binding to ULK1 or RB1CC1 had only minor effects, emphasizing that mutations interfering with ULK1 complex assembly do not necessarily result in a blockade of autophagy. Furthermore, inhibition of ATG13 binding to phospholipids or Atg8 proteins had only mild effects on autophagy. Generally, the observed phenotypes were more severe when autophagy was induced by MTORC1/2 inhibition compared to amino acid starvation. Collectively, these data establish the interaction between ATG13 and ATG101 as a promising target in disease-settings where the inhibition of autophagy is desired.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nora Wallot-Hieke
- a Institute of Molecular Medicine I, Medical Faculty , Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf , Düsseldorf , Germany
| | - Neha Verma
- b Institute for Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences , Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf , Düsseldorf , Germany
| | - David Schlütermann
- a Institute of Molecular Medicine I, Medical Faculty , Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf , Düsseldorf , Germany
| | - Niklas Berleth
- a Institute of Molecular Medicine I, Medical Faculty , Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf , Düsseldorf , Germany
| | - Jana Deitersen
- a Institute of Molecular Medicine I, Medical Faculty , Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf , Düsseldorf , Germany
| | - Philip Böhler
- a Institute of Molecular Medicine I, Medical Faculty , Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf , Düsseldorf , Germany
| | - Fabian Stuhldreier
- a Institute of Molecular Medicine I, Medical Faculty , Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf , Düsseldorf , Germany
| | - Wenxian Wu
- a Institute of Molecular Medicine I, Medical Faculty , Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf , Düsseldorf , Germany
| | - Sabine Seggewiß
- a Institute of Molecular Medicine I, Medical Faculty , Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf , Düsseldorf , Germany
| | - Christoph Peter
- a Institute of Molecular Medicine I, Medical Faculty , Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf , Düsseldorf , Germany
| | - Holger Gohlke
- b Institute for Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences , Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf , Düsseldorf , Germany
| | - Noboru Mizushima
- c Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School and Faculty of Medicine , The University of Tokyo , Tokyo , Japan
| | - Björn Stork
- a Institute of Molecular Medicine I, Medical Faculty , Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf , Düsseldorf , Germany
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16
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Mizushima N. The exponential growth of autophagy‐related research: from the humble yeast to the Nobel Prize. FEBS Lett 2017; 591:681-689. [DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.12594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2017] [Revised: 02/03/2017] [Accepted: 02/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Noboru Mizushima
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Graduate School of Medicine The University of Tokyo Japan
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17
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Suzuki H, Osawa T, Fujioka Y, Noda NN. Structural biology of the core autophagy machinery. Curr Opin Struct Biol 2016; 43:10-17. [PMID: 27723509 DOI: 10.1016/j.sbi.2016.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2016] [Revised: 09/13/2016] [Accepted: 09/21/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
In autophagy, which is an intracellular degradation system that is conserved among eukaryotes, degradation targets are sequestered through the de novo synthesis of a double-membrane organelle, the autophagosome, which delivers them to the lysosomes for degradation. The core autophagy machinery comprising 18 autophagy-related (Atg) proteins in yeast plays an essential role in autophagosome formation; however, the molecular role of each Atg factor and the mechanism of autophagosome formation remain elusive. Recent years have seen remarkable progress in structural biological studies on the core autophagy machinery, opening new avenues for autophagy research. This review summarizes recent advances in structural biological and mechanistic studies on the core autophagy machinery and discusses the molecular mechanisms of autophagosome formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hironori Suzuki
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry, Microbial Chemistry Research Foundation, 3-14-23 Kamiosaki, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 141-0021, Japan
| | - Takuo Osawa
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry, Microbial Chemistry Research Foundation, 3-14-23 Kamiosaki, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 141-0021, Japan
| | - Yuko Fujioka
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry, Microbial Chemistry Research Foundation, 3-14-23 Kamiosaki, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 141-0021, Japan
| | - Nobuo N Noda
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry, Microbial Chemistry Research Foundation, 3-14-23 Kamiosaki, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 141-0021, Japan.
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18
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Botti-Millet J, Nascimbeni AC, Dupont N, Morel E, Codogno P. Fine-tuning autophagy: from transcriptional to posttranslational regulation. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2016; 311:C351-62. [DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00129.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2016] [Accepted: 06/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Macroautophagy (hereafter called autophagy) is a vacuolar lysosomal pathway for degradation of intracellular material in eukaryotic cells. Autophagy plays crucial roles in tissue homeostasis, in adaptation to stress situations, and in immune and inflammatory responses. Alteration of autophagy is associated with cancer, diabetes and obesity, cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative disease, autoimmune disease, infection, and chronic inflammatory disease. Autophagy is controlled by autophagy-related (ATG) proteins that act in a coordinated manner to build up the initial autophagic vacuole named the autophagosome. It is now known that the activities of ATG proteins are modulated by posttranslational modifications such as phosphorylation, ubiquitination, and acetylation. Moreover, transcriptional and epigenetic controls are involved in the regulation of autophagy in stress situations. Here we summarize and discuss how posttranslational modifications and transcriptional and epigenetic controls regulate the involvement of autophagy in the proteostasis network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joëlle Botti-Millet
- Institut Necker-Enfants Malades, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1151-Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 8253, Paris, France
- Université Paris Diderot-Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France; and
| | - Anna Chiara Nascimbeni
- Institut Necker-Enfants Malades, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1151-Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 8253, Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes-Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Nicolas Dupont
- Institut Necker-Enfants Malades, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1151-Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 8253, Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes-Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Etienne Morel
- Institut Necker-Enfants Malades, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1151-Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 8253, Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes-Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Patrice Codogno
- Institut Necker-Enfants Malades, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1151-Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 8253, Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes-Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
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