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Zhou XJ, Zhu CT, Zhang LY, You S, Wu FA, Wang J. Enrichment and purification of red pigments from defective mulberry fruits using biotransformation in a liquid-liquid-solid three-phase system. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:24432-24440. [PMID: 32323230 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-08731-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2019] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
A large number of defective mulberries are discarded each year because mulberries are easy to break. The red pigments from defective mulberries are recognized as the sustainable sources of anthocyanins extracted from nature. Cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside and cyanidin-3-O-glucoside are the main components of mulberry red pigments, accounting for 50% and 40% of the total, respectively. Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside exhibits anticancer, hypoglycemic, and liver and visceral protection properties. Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside can be prepared by enzymatically hydrolyzing the rhamnosidase bond of cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside. To obtain mulberry red pigment with a high purity of cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, immobilized α-L-rhamnosidase was added to the aqueous two-phase system to construct a liquid-liquid-solid three-phase enzyme catalytic system. After optimization, the three-phase system was composed of 27.12% (w/w) ethanol, 18.10% (w/w) ammonium sulfate, 15% (w/w) mulberry juice, 4.24% (w/w) immobilized α-L-rhamnosidase, and 35.54% (w/w) pure water. The three-phase system was employed to enrich and purify cyanidin-3-O-glucoside at pH 5 and 45 °C for 1 h. The purity of cyanidin-3-O-glucoside was increased from 40 to 82.42% with cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside conversion of 60.68%. The immobilized α-L-rhamnosidase could be reused seven times, maintaining a relative activity of over 50%. Overall, the developed system provided an efficient and simple approach for high purity mulberry red pigment production and recycling in the field of sustainable agriculture. Graphical abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue-Jiao Zhou
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericutural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, 212018, Jiangsu, China
| | - Chang-Tong Zhu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericutural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, 212018, Jiangsu, China
| | - Lu-Yue Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericutural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, 212018, Jiangsu, China
| | - Shuai You
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericutural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, 212018, Jiangsu, China
- Key Laboratory of Silkworm and Mulberry Genetic Improvement, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Sericultural Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhenjiang, 212018, Jiangsu, China
| | - Fu-An Wu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericutural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, 212018, Jiangsu, China
- Key Laboratory of Silkworm and Mulberry Genetic Improvement, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Sericultural Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhenjiang, 212018, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jun Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericutural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, 212018, Jiangsu, China.
- Key Laboratory of Silkworm and Mulberry Genetic Improvement, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Sericultural Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhenjiang, 212018, Jiangsu, China.
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Xie Y, Hu F, Xiang D, Lu H, Li W, Zhao A, Huang L, Wang R. The metabolic effect of gut microbiota on drugs. Drug Metab Rev 2020; 52:139-156. [PMID: 32116054 DOI: 10.1080/03602532.2020.1718691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Xie
- School of Pharmacy, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of the Plateau Medicial, The 940 Hospital of Joint Logistics Support, PLA, Lanzhou, China
| | - Fangdi Hu
- School of Pharmacy, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Dawei Xiang
- Key Laboratory of the Plateau Medicial, The 940 Hospital of Joint Logistics Support, PLA, Lanzhou, China
| | - Hui Lu
- Key Laboratory of the Plateau Medicial, The 940 Hospital of Joint Logistics Support, PLA, Lanzhou, China
| | - Wenbin Li
- Key Laboratory of the Plateau Medicial, The 940 Hospital of Joint Logistics Support, PLA, Lanzhou, China
| | - Anpeng Zhao
- Key Laboratory of the Plateau Medicial, The 940 Hospital of Joint Logistics Support, PLA, Lanzhou, China
| | - Longji Huang
- School of Pharmacy, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of the Plateau Medicial, The 940 Hospital of Joint Logistics Support, PLA, Lanzhou, China
| | - Rong Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of the Plateau Medicial, The 940 Hospital of Joint Logistics Support, PLA, Lanzhou, China
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Kang MJ, Kim HG, Kim JS, Oh DG, Um YJ, Seo CS, Han JW, Cho HJ, Kim GH, Jeong TC, Jeong HG. The effect of gut microbiota on drug metabolism. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2013; 9:1295-308. [PMID: 24033282 DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2013.807798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Numerous drugs and toxicants must be metabolized to an active form. Metabolic activation by host tissues, such as the liver, has been well studied. However, drug and toxicant metabolism by the intestinal microbiota is an unexplored, but essential, field of study in pharmacology and toxicology. The taxonomic diversity and sheer numbers of the intestinal microbiota, and their capacity to metabolize xenobiotics, underscore the importance of this mode of metabolism. AREAS COVERED Metabolism by the intestinal microbiota has focused on the natural products of glycosides hydrolyzed by intestinal microbiota enzymes, but not by host tissues. Metabolism of synthetic drugs by the intestinal microbiota has been less-intensively investigated. This review provides an overview of xenobiotic metabolism by the intestinal microbiota of both natural products and synthetic drugs. EXPERT OPINION Metabolism by the intestinal microbiota might result in a different metabolite profile than that produced by host tissues. This could potentially result in either activation or inactivation of the pharmacological and/or toxicological actions of the compound in question. The contribution of the intestinal microbiota to drug metabolism remains relatively unexplored. Therefore, studies of xenobiotic metabolism by the intestinal microbiota need to be included in new drug development as well as classical studies of host tissue metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mi Jeong Kang
- Yeungnam University, College of Pharmacy , Gyeongsan, 712-749 , South Korea
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Yang J, Qian D, Jiang S, Shang EX, Guo J, Duan JA. Identification of rutin deglycosylated metabolites produced by human intestinal bacteria using UPLC–Q-TOF/MS. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2012; 898:95-100. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2012.04.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2012] [Revised: 04/17/2012] [Accepted: 04/19/2012] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Jung IH, Lee JH, Hyun YJ, Kim DH. Metabolism of Ginsenoside Rb1 by Human Intestinal Microflora and Cloning of Its Metabolizing β- D-Glucosidase from Bifidobacterium longum H-1. Biol Pharm Bull 2012; 35:573-81. [DOI: 10.1248/bpb.35.573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Il-Hoon Jung
- Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University
| | - Jeong Hoon Lee
- Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University
| | - Yang-Jin Hyun
- Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University
| | - Dong-Hyun Kim
- Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University
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Colonic metabolites of berry polyphenols: the missing link to biological activity? Br J Nutr 2010; 104 Suppl 3:S48-66. [DOI: 10.1017/s0007114510003946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 332] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Bae EA, Shin JE, Kim DH. Metabolism of ginsenoside Re by human intestinal microflora and its estrogenic effect. Biol Pharm Bull 2006; 28:1903-8. [PMID: 16204943 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.28.1903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
To understand the relationship between the metabolism and biological activity of ginsenoside Re, a main protopanaxatriol saponin in Panax ginseng C. A. MEYER, its metabolic pathway and estrogenic effect by human intestinal microflora were investigated. All human fecal specimens metabolized ginsenoside Re, mainly to ginsenoside Rh1 and ginsenoside F1, via ginsenoside Rg1, with protopanaxadiol as a minor component. Almost all isolated ginsenoside Re-metabolizing intestinal bacteria (GHIB) also metabolized ginsenoside Re, mainly to ginsenosides Rh1 and F1, via ginsenoside Rg1. Alpha-Rhamnosidase and beta-glucosidase, partially purified from the most potent GHIB, Bacteroides JY-6, hydrolyzed ginsenoside Re and ginsenoside Rg1, respectively; however, they did not hydrolyze ginsenosides Rh1 and F1. These findings suggest that the ginsenosides Rh1 and/or F1 may not be suitable substrates of intestinal bacteria, particularly Bacteroides JY-6. The estrogenic effects of ginsenoside Re and its main metabolites, ginsenosides Rg1 and Rh1, were also investigated. Ginsenoside Rh1 showed the greatest estrogenic effect in human breast carcinoma MCF-7 cells. Based on these findings, the estrogenic effect of ginsenoside Re may be expressed by intestinal microflora.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun-Ah Bae
- College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University; 1. Hoegi, Seoul, 130-701 Korea
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Sanugul K, Akao T, Li Y, Kakiuchi N, Nakamura N, Hattori M. Isolation of a human intestinal bacterium that transforms mangiferin to norathyriol and inducibility of the enzyme that cleaves a C-glucosyl bond. Biol Pharm Bull 2005; 28:1672-8. [PMID: 16141538 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.28.1672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The C-glucosyl bond of C-glucosides generally tolerates acid and enzymatic hydrolysis. Many C-glucosides are cleaved by human intestinal bacteria. We isolated the specific bacterium involved in the metabolism of mangiferin (2-beta-D-glucopyranosyl-1,3,6,7-tetrahydroxyxanthone), C-glucosyl xanthone, from a mixture of human fecal bacteria. The anaerobic Bacteroides species named MANG, transformed mangiferin to the aglycone, norathyriol, suggesting cleavage of a C-glucosyl bond. However, B. sp. MANG cleaved C-glucosyl in a dose- and time-dependent manner only when cultivated in the presence of mangiferin. Cleavage was abolished by inhibitors of RNA and protein syntheses, such as rifampicin and chloramphenicol, respectively, indicating that the enzyme that cleaves C-glucosyl is induced by mangiferin. In contrast, mangiferin did not affect bacterial alpha- and beta-glucosidase activities under any conditions. The C-glucosyl-cleavage in cell-free extracts was not altered by potent glucosidase inhibitors such as 1-deoxynojirimycin and gluconolactone. Therefore, the C-glucosyl-cleaving enzyme substantially differs from known glucosidases that cleave O-glucosides. This is the first description of a specific intestinal bacterium that is involved in the metabolism of mangiferin and which produces a novel and inducible C-glucosyl-cleaving enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kanjana Sanugul
- Institute of Natural Medicine, Toyama Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Toyama, Japan
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Lin HY, Shen SC, Chen YC. Anti-inflammatory effect of heme oxygenase 1: glycosylation and nitric oxide inhibition in macrophages. J Cell Physiol 2005; 202:579-90. [PMID: 15316927 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.20160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Flavonoids including the aglycones, hesperetin (HT; 5,7,3'-trihydroxy-4'-methoxy-flavanone), and naringenin (NE; 5,7,4'-trihydroxy flavanone) and glycones, hesperidin (HD; 5,7,3'-trihydroxy-4'-methoxy-flavanone 7-rhamnoglucoside) and naringin (NI; 5,7,4'-trihydroxy flavanone 7-rhamno glucoside), were used to examine the importance of rutinose at C7 on the inhibitory effects of flavonoids on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced nitric oxide production in macrophages. Both HT and NE, but not their respective glycosides HD and NI, induced heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) protein expression in the presence or absence of LPS and showed time and dose-dependent inhibition of LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO) production and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression in RAW264.7, J774A.1, and thioglycolate-elicited peritoneal macrophages. Additive inhibitory effect of an HO-1 inducer hemin and NE or NI on LPS-induced NO production and iNOS expression was identified, and HO enzyme inhibitor tin protoporphyrin (SnPP) attenuated the inhibitory effects of HT, NE, and hemin on LPS-induced NO production. Both NE and HT showed no effect on iNOS mRNA and protein stability in RAW264.7 cells. Removal of rutinose at C7 of HD and NI by enzymatic digestion using hesperidinase (HDase) and naringinase (NIase) produce inhibitory activity on LPS-induced NO production, according to the production of the aglycones, HT and NE, by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis. Furthermore, the amount of NO produced by LPS or lipoteichoic acid (LTA) was significantly reduced in HO-1-overexpressing cells (HO-1/RAW264.7) compared to that in parental cells (RAW264.7). Results of the present study provide scientific evidence to suggest that rutinose at C7 is a negative moiety in flavonoid inhibition of LPS-induced NO production, and that HO-1 is involved in the inhibitory mechanism of flavonoids on LPS-induced iNOS and NO production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui-Yi Lin
- Graduate Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
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