Neuroprotective effect of Sanguisorbae radix against oxidative stress-induced brain damage: in vitro and in vivo

Sanguisorba minor Scop.: An Overview of Its Phytochemistry and Biological Effects

Since ancient times, many plants have been cultivated for their nutritional and medicinal properties. The genus Sanguisorba has been used for medicinal purposes for more than 2000 years. These species are distributed in temperate, arctic, or alpine areas in the Northern Hemisphere. Elongated, imparipinnate leaves and densely clustered flower heads are characteristics of the genus Sanguisorba. While Sanguisorba officinalis L. is mainly known for its significant medicinal applications, Sanguisorba minor Scop. is beginning to attract greater interest for its chemical composition and biological effects. Our research collected extensive information on Sanguisorba minor, including its history, taxonomy, habitat, and distribution, as well as its bioactive components and biological activities. In addition to electron microscopy of plant parts (root, stems, and leaves), which is described for the first time in the literature in the case of S. minor, the study also provides information on potential pests or beneficial insects that may be present. Our goal was to provide important information that will serve as a solid foundation for upcoming research on Sanguisorba minor Scop.

Evaluation of Polyphenolic Composition and Antimicrobial Properties of Sanguisorba officinalis L. and Sanguisorba minor Scop

The most widespread Sanguisorba species are Sanguisorba officinalis L. and Sanguisorba minor Scop. which are also found in the Romanian flora and classified as medicinal plants because of hemostatic, antibacterial, antitumor, antioxidant and antiviral activities. This study aimed to characterize and compare Sanguisorba species in order to highlight which species is more valuable according to phenolic profile and antimicrobial activity. Based on high-performance liquid chromatography equipped with photodiode array detection and mass spectrometry (electrospray ionization) (HPLC-DAD-MS (ESI⁺)) analysis, it was evident that the ethanol extract obtained from the leaves of S. minor Scop. contains the highest content of phenolic compounds at 160.96 mg/g p.s., followed by the flower and root extract (131.56 mg/g dw and 121.36 mg/g dw, respectively). While in S. officinalis, the highest amount of phenols was recorded in the root extract (127.06 mg/g), followed by the flower and leaves extract (102.31 mg/g and 81.09 mg/g dw, respectively). Our results show that among the two species, S. minor Scop. is richer in phenolic compounds compared with the S. officinalis L. sample. In addition, the antimicrobial potential of each plant organ of Sanguisorba species was investigated. The ethanol extract of S. minor Scop. leaves exhibited better antibacterial activity against all of the bacteria tested, especially on Staphylococcus aureus, with an inhibition zone of 15.33 ± 0.83 mm. Due to the chemical composition and antimicrobial effect, the Sanguisorba species can be used as food supplements with beneficial effects on human health.

Effect of Sanguisorba minor on scopolamine-induced memory loss in rat: involvement of oxidative stress and acetylcholinesterase

Sanguisorba minor (S. minor) has neuroprotective and antioxidant activities. However, its potential benefits in ameliorating learning and memory functions have been explored in no studies up to now. So, in the current study, rats were treated with S. minor hydro-ethanolic extract (50, 100, and 200 mg/kg, intraperitoneal (i.p.)) as well as rivastigmine (0.5 mg/kg, i.p.) for 21 consecutive days. Thereafter, their behavioral performance was assessed using Morris water maze (MWM) and passive avoidance (PA) tasks. Notably, 30 min before conducting the tasks, scopolamine was injected. Finally, the biochemical assessments were done using the brain tissue. The extract characterization was performed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, which confirmed the presence of quercetin, myricetin, kaempferol, catechin, ellagic acid, and gallic acid derivatives. In the MWM test, the extract reduced both escape latency and the travelled distance, compared to the scopolamine group. Moreover, in the PA test, the latency to enter the dark chamber significantly increased by the extract, compared to the scopolamine group (p < 0.05-p < 0.001). Notably, the beneficial effects of S. minor on cognitive performance of the scopolamine-treated rats appeared to be similar or even better than rivastigmine in behavior performance. Similar to rivastigmine, it was observed that the extract attenuated both AChE activity and oxidative injury in the brain as evidenced by the increased antioxidant enzymes and total thiol content; however, it decreased malondialdehyde level (p < 0.05-p < 0.001). In conclusion, the results suggested the effectiveness of S. minor in preventing cognitive dysfunction induced by scopolamine. Accordingly, these protective effects might be produced by the regulation of cholinergic activity and oxidative stress. S. minor could be considered as a potential alternative therapy in cognition disorders.

A Comprehensive Review of Genus Sanguisorba: Traditional Uses, Chemical Constituents and Medical Applications

Genus Sanguisorba (family: Rosaceae) comprises nearly 148 species, distributed widely across the temperate and subtropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Sanguisorba officinalis L. (S. officinalis) has been used as a hemostatic and scald treating medicine in China for a long time. Numerous studies have demonstrated that plant extracts or monomers from S. officinalis exhibit several pharmacological effects, such as anti-cancer, anti-virus, anti-inflammation, anti-bacteria, neuroprotective and hepatoprotective effects. The other species of genus Sanguisorba are also being studied by researchers worldwide. Sanguisorba minor Scop. (S. minor), as an edible wild plant, is a common ingredient of the Mediterranean diet, and its young shoots and leaves are often mixed with traditional vegetables and consumed as salad. Reports on genus Sanguisorba available in the current literature were collected from Google Scholar, Web of Science, Springer, and PubMed. The Plant List (http://www.theplantlist.org./tpl1.1/search?q=Sanguisorba), International Plant Name Index (https://www.ipni.org/?q=Sanguisorba) and Kew Botanical Garden (http://powo.science.kew.org/) were used for obtaining the scientific names and information on the subspecies and cultivars. In recent years, several in vivo and in vitro experiments have been conducted to reveal the active components and effective monomers of S. officinalis and S. minor. To date, more than 270 compounds have been isolated and identified so far from the species belonging to genus Sanguisorba. Numerous reports on the chemical constituents, pharmacologic effects, and toxicity of genus Sanguisorba are available in the literature. This review provides a comprehensive understanding of the current traditional applications of plants, which are supported by a large number of scientific experiments. Owing to these promising properties, this species is used in the treatment of various diseases, including influenza virus infection, inflammation, Alzheimer’s disease, type 2 diabetes and leukopenia caused by bone marrow suppression. Moreover, the rich contents and biological effects of S. officinalis and S. minor facilitate these applications in dietary supplements and cosmetics. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to summarize the recent advances in the traditional uses, chemical constituents, pharmacological effects and clinical applications of genus Sanguisorba. The present comprehensive review may provide new insights for the future research on genus Sanguisorba.

Verapamil Inhibits Mitochondria-Induced Reactive Oxygen Species and Dependent Apoptosis Pathways in Cerebral Transient Global Ischemia/Reperfusion

The prefrontal cortex is the largest lobe of the brain and is consequently involved in stroke. There is no comprehensive practical pharmacological strategy for ameliorating prefrontal cortex injury induced by cerebral ischemia. Therefore, we studied the neuroprotective properties of verapamil (Ver) on mitochondrial dysfunction and morphological features of apoptosis in transient global ischemia/reperfusion (I/R). Ninety-six Wistar rats were allocated into four groups: control, I/R, I/R+Ver (10 mg/kg twice 1 hour prior to ischemia and 1 hour after reperfusion phase), and I/R+NaCl (vehicle). Animals were sacrificed, and mitochondrial dysfunction parameters (i.e., mitochondrial swelling, mitochondrial membrane potential, ATP concentration, ROS production, and cytochrome c release), antioxidant defense (i.e., superoxide dismutase, malondialdehyde, glutathione peroxidase, catalase, and caspase-3 activation), and morphological features of apoptosis were determined. The results showed that mitochondrial damage, impairment of antioxidant defense system, and apoptosis were significantly more prevalent in the I/R group in comparison with the other groups. Ver decreased mitochondrial damage by reducing oxidative stress, augmented the activity of antioxidant enzymes in the brain, and decreased apoptosis in the I/R neurons. The current study confirmed the role of oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in I/R progression and indicated the possible antioxidative mechanism of the neuroprotective activities of Ver.

Profile and Content of Phenolic Compounds in Leaves, Flowers, Roots, and Stalks of Sanguisorba officinalis L. Determined with the LC-DAD-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS Analysis and Their In Vitro Antioxidant, Antidiabetic, Antiproliferative Potency

The aim of this study was to accurately determine the profile of polyphenols using the highly sensitive LC-DAD-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS technique and to determine in vitro antioxidant activity, the ability of inhibition of α-amylase, α-glucoamylase, and pancreatic lipase activity, and antiproliferative activity in leaves, flowers, roots, and stalks of medical plant Sanguisorba officinalis L. The results of the analysis of the morphological parts indicated the presence of 130 polyphenols, including 62 that were detected in S. officinalis L. for the first time. The prevailing group was tannins, with contents ranging from 66.4% of total polyphenols in the flowers to 43.3% in the stalks. The highest content of polyphenols was identified in the flowers and reached 14,444.97 mg/100 g d.b., while the lowest was noted in the stalks and reached 4606.33 mg/100 g d.b. In turn, the highest values of the antiradical and reducing capacities were determined in the leaves and reached 6.63 and 0.30 mmol TE/g d.b, respectively. In turn, a high ability to inhibit activities of α-amylase and α-glucoamylase was noted in the flowers, while a high ability to inhibit the activity of pancreatic lipase was demonstrated in the leaves of S. officinalis L. In addition, the leaves and the flowers showed the most effective antiproliferative properties in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma, colorectal adenocarcinoma, bladder cancer, and T-cell leukemia cells, whereas the weakest activity was noted in the stalks. Thus, the best dietetic material to be used when composing functional foods were the leaves and the flowers of S. officinalis L., while the roots and the stalks were equally valuable plant materials.

Characterization of Secondary Metabolites in Flowers of Sanguisorba officinalis L. by HPLC-DAD-MSn and GC/MS

The investigations reported here focus on an in-depth characterization of the secondary metabolite profile of Sanguisorba officinalis flowers. For this purpose, fresh flowers were extracted with MeOH/H₂ O and EtOH/H₂ O and the resulting crude extracts fractionated using CH₂ Cl₂ , AcOEt, and BuOH. Individual compounds were characterized by high performance liquid chromatography and gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometric detection (HPLC-DAD-MSⁿ and GC/MS). MeOH/H₂ O extraction and LC/MSⁿ investigations revealed the occurrence of flavonoid glycosides (quercetin, kaempferol), ellagitannin glycosides and four anthocyanins. Among the latter, two components, i. e., cyanidin-malonyl-glucose and cyanidin-galloyl-hexose, have not been reported for S. officinalis so far. Furthermore, phenylethylamine was characterized for the first time in Sanguisorba by pH value dependent extraction with CH₂ Cl₂ . In addition, AcOEt and BuOH extracts were analyzed by GC/MS both prior to and after acid hydrolysis of secondary metabolites. For this purpose, the extracts were treated with 1 n HCl solution (105 °C, 1 h) and derivatized with BSTFA. Analyses revealed the occurrence of several classes of phenolic compounds, such as gallic acid, hydroxybenzoic acid, hydroxycinnamic acid and ellagic acid derivatives. Additionally, the most prominent ursane-type triterpenoid (ziyu-glycoside I) from Sanguisorba and its corresponding aglycone isomers were detected and assigned based on their characteristic fragmentation patterns.

Protective effects of Sanguisorba minor and Ferulago angulata total extracts against beta-amyloid induced cytotoxicity and oxidative stress in cultured cerebellar granule neurons

Introduction: Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is an age-dependent neurodegenerative disorder and major cause of mortality in the elderly. AD has a complex pathophysiology and needs new multi-targeted compounds to halt the disease progression through several mechanisms. Medicinal plants contain various compounds with heterogeneous pharmacological effects, therefore are a good source. The aim of this study was to evaluate the protective effect of total extracts of Sanguisorba minor and Ferulago angulata on beta-amyloid (Aβ)-induced toxicity in primary neural cell culture.Methods: Cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) were cultured according to standard protocols. The cultured neurons were incubated with Aβ alone or in combination with different concentrations of extracts for 24 hours. Cell viability was measured by methylthiazolyldiphenyl-tetrazolium (MTT) assay. In addition acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity and oxidative stress markers were measured after incubation. Also, the effects of different concentrations of the extracts on AChE activity of the cultured neurons were investigated. For measuring the acute toxicity of the extract, LD50 was estimated by limit test.Results: Both extracts could protect CGNs against Aβ-induced cell death. Aβ-induced oxidative stress and increase of AChE activity were ameliorated by both extracts. S. minor extract dose-dependently reduced AChE activity in cultured CGNs. LD50 of both extracts was estimated above 2000 mg/kg and considered as safe.Conclusion: Both studied extracts protected CGNs against Aβ-induced toxicity by ameliorating oxidative stress mechanism. According to these results, these extracts are recommended for further investigation in AD treatment.

In Vitro Antioxidant and Anti-Propionibacterium acnes Activities of Cold Water, Hot Water, and Methanol Extracts, and Their Respective Ethyl Acetate Fractions, from Sanguisorba officinalis L. Roots

Identification of medicinal plants and naturally derived compounds as new natural antioxidant and antibacterial sources for topical acne treatment has long been important. To determine anti-Propionibacterium acnes activity and in vitro antioxidant activities, Sanguisorba officinalis L. root (SOR) was extracted with cold water (CWE), hot water (HWE), and methanol (ME), and each extract was fractionated successively with hexane, ethyl acetate (EA), and butanol to determine whether the activities could be attributed to the total phenolic, flavonoid, terpenoid, and condensed tannin contents. Pearson's correlation coefficients were analyzed between the respective variables. The SOR CWE, HWE, ME, and their respective EA fractions showed anti-P. acnes activity based on the paper disc diffusion method on agar plates, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), and minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC). The MIC against P. acnes had a moderate (+) correlation with the total phenolic content, but not with the other measures. The 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging capacity (SC) had a strong (⁻) correlation with the total phenolic content and a moderate (⁻) correlation with the total flavonoid content. The total antioxidant capacity had a strong (+) correlation with the condensed tannin content. Linoleic acid peroxidation inhibition had a strong (⁻) correlation with the total phenolic content. To elucidate the major active phytochemicals in the CWE-EA, HWE-EA, and ME-EA fractions, high performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet (HPLC-UV) and ultra high performance liquid chromatography coupled with hybrid triple quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF-MS) were performed. The HPLC-UV analysis showed the presence of nine compounds in common (arjunic acid and/or euscaphic acid, gallic acid, kaempferol, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, tannic acid, and coumarin, quercetin). The UHPLC-QTOF-MS analysis showed the presence of nine compounds in common (gallic acid; caffeic acid; umbelliferone; arjunic acid, euscaphic acid, and/or tormentic acid; pomolic acid; rosamultic acid; and benzoic acid). When standards of the identified phytochemicals were tested against the same bacterium, quercetin, coumarin, and euscaphic acid showed antibacterial activity against P. acnes.

Chemical constituents from Sanguisorba officinalis L. and their inhibitory effects on LPS-stimulated pro-inflammatory cytokine production in bone marrow-derived dendritic cells

Sanguisorba officinalis L. (Rosaceae) is a perennial herbaceous plant and its roots have been used as an important astringent medicine in Eastern Asian countries over many thousand years. In this phytochemical research, 23 compounds (1-23) were isolated from the roots of S. officinalis. Their chemical structures were identified by extensive spectroscopic methods, including 1D and 2D NMR experiments. The anti-inflammatory effects of extracts and isolated compounds were investigated by measuring the production of pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-12 p40, IL-6 and TNF-α in LPS-stimulated bone marrow-derived dendritic cell. Compounds 1, 3, 7-8, 11-14 revealed promising anti-inflammatory effects. These results suggested that some phenolic compounds and monoterpenoids from S. officinalis could be potential candidates for anti-inflammatory treatments.

Anti-allergic inflammatory components from Sanguisorba officinalis L

Sanguisorba officinalis L. was well known as a traditional herbal medicine to treat inflammation and allergic skin diseases. The aim of this research was to indentify compounds with anti-allergic inflammatory property. Twenty-five compounds (1-25) were isolated from S. officinalis including two new compounds (1 and 8), and their chemical structures were identified by NMR and ESIMS analysis. Consequently, the anti-allergic inflammatory activities of these isolates were investigated by inhibiting β-hexosaminidase and IL-4 production in PMA/A23187-stimulated RBL-2H3 cells. Compounds 6, 8, 13, 17-18 and 25 significantly inhibited β-hexosaminidase release and IL-4 production. Additionally, compounds 8, 17 and 25 effectively suppressed the activation of NF-κB and NF-κB p65 translocation into the nucleus. Anti-inflammatory effects of isolated compounds were evaluated in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages, and they showed dramatic inhibition on LPS-induced overproduction of nitric oxide (NO) and TNF-α. Consistently, the protein levels of iNOS and COX-2 were remarkably decreased by the single compounds 8, 13 and 25. These results showed that compounds 8, 13 and 25 from S. officinalis may have a therapeutic potential for allergic inflammatory diseases.

Phytotherapeutic Activities of Sanguisorba officinalis and its Chemical Constituents: A Review

Sanguisorba officinalis Linne (S. officinalis, Rosaceae) has been used as a medicinal plant for the treatment of burns, hematemesis, melena, intestinal infections, and dermatitis for a long time in China, Korea, and Japan. The therapeutic efficacy of this herb is intimately associated with its anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antifungal, hemostatic, and anticancer activities. Its root contains triterpenoid saponins (zigyuglycoside I: C[Formula: see text]H[Formula: see text]O[Formula: see text] and ziyuglycoside II: C[Formula: see text]H[Formula: see text]O₈) and tannins (sanguiin H-6: C[Formula: see text]H[Formula: see text]O[Formula: see text]). It has been recently revealed that these active constituents of S. officinalis possess antiwrinkle properties without cytotoxicity. They also have anticancer effects by inducing apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. Moreover, they can inhibit proliferative tumorigenesis. The underlying mechanism involved in the pharmacological actions of these active constituents is mainly related to p38 MAPK signaling. Although various studies have reported its therapeutic activities and major chemical components, review articles that extensively organize various properties of S. officinalis and its major constituents are still scarce. Taken together, the objective of this paper is to provide overall pharmacological and phytochemical profiles of S. officinalis and its constituents (including ziyuglycoside I, ziyuglycoside II, and sanguiin H-6), and their potential roles in clinical applications for the treatment of inflammatory diseases, bleeding disorders, and cancer.

Alzheimer's disease and metabolic syndrome: A link from oxidative stress and inflammation to neurodegeneration

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia and one of the most important causes of morbidity and mortality among the aging population. AD diagnosis is made post-mortem, and the two pathologic hallmarks, particularly evident in the end stages of the illness, are amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Currently, there is no curative treatment for AD. Additionally, there is a strong relation between oxidative stress, metabolic syndrome, and AD. The high levels of circulating lipids and glucose imbalances amplify lipid peroxidation that gradually diminishes the antioxidant systems, causing high levels of oxidative metabolism that affects cell structure, leading to neuronal damage. Accumulating evidence suggests that AD is closely related to a dysfunction of both insulin signaling and glucose metabolism in the brain, leading to an insulin-resistant brain state. Four drugs are currently used for this pathology: Three FDA-approved cholinesterase inhibitors and one NMDA receptor antagonist. However, wide varieties of antioxidants are promissory to delay or prevent the symptoms of AD and may help in treating the disease. Therefore, therapeutic efforts to achieve attenuation of oxidative stress could be beneficial in AD treatment, attenuating Aβ-induced neurotoxicity and improve neurological outcomes in AD. The term inflammaging characterizes a widely accepted paradigm that aging is accompanied by a low-grade chronic up-regulation of certain pro-inflammatory responses in the absence of overt infection, and is a highly significant risk factor for both morbidity and mortality in the elderly.

Saponins from Sanguisorba officinalis Improve Hematopoiesis by Promoting Survival through FAK and Erk1/2 Activation and Modulating Cytokine Production in Bone Marrow

Radix Sanguisorbae, the root of Sanguisorba officinalis L. is used as traditional Chinese medicine. In recent decades, it has been reported to be clinically effective against myelosuppression induced by chemotherapy and/ or radiotherapy. However, the underlining mechanism has not been well studied. In this work, we evaluated the hematopoietic effect of total saponins from S. officinalis L. on myelosuppressive mice induced by cyclophosphamide and by⁶⁰Co-γ-irradiation and confirmed the therapeutic effect. Then, we found total saponins and their characteristic constituents Ziyuglycoside I and Ziyuglycoside II can inhibit apoptosis of TF-1 cells caused by cytokine deprivation, and promote survival of mouse bone marrow nuclear cells through focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (Erk1/2) activation in vitro. In addition, they can down-regulate macrophage inflammatory protein 2 (MIP-2), platelet factor 4 (PF4) and P-selectin secretion, which are reported to be suppressive to hematopoiesis, both in vitro and in vivo. These results suggest that promotion of survival through FAK and Erk1/2 activation and inhibition of suppressive cytokines in the bone marrow is likely to be the pharmacological mechanism underlying the hematopoietic effect of saponins from S. officinalis L.

Traditional Uses, Chemical Constituents and Biological Activities of Plants from the Genus Sanguisorba L

Plants from the genus Sanguisorba have been treated as medicinal ingredients for over 2000 years. This paper reviews advances in the botanical, phytochemical and pharmacological studies of the genus. To date, more than 120 chemical constituents have been isolated and identified from these plants, especially from S. officinalis and S. minor. Among these compounds, triterpenoids, phenols and flavonoids are the primary biologically active constituents. Triterpenoids can be used as quality control markers to determine the quality of medicinal materials and their preparations. In vivo and in vitro studies have shown that plants from the genus Sanguisorba exhibit a wide range of pharmacological properties, including hemostatic, antibacterial, antitumor, neuroprotective and hypoglycemic activities. In Chinese medical practice, many drugs (e.g., tablets and powders) that contain S. officinalis roots have been used to treat leukopenia, hemorrhaging and burns. However, there is still a multitude of Sanguisorba species that have garnered little or no attention. Indeed, there are few reports concerning the clinical use and toxic effects of these plants. Further attention should be focused on the study of these species in order to gather information on their respective toxicology data, any relevant quality-control measures, and the clinical value of the crude extracts, active compounds, and bioactive metabolites from Genus Sanguisorba.

Sanguisorba officinalis L synergistically enhanced 5-fluorouracil cytotoxicity in colorectal cancer cells by promoting a reactive oxygen species-mediated, mitochondria-caspase-dependent apoptotic pathway

Sanguisorba officinalis L. radix is a widely used herb called DiYu (DY) in China and has an extensive range of bioactivities, including anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and anti-oxidative activities. However, there is little evidence to support its anti-cancer effects against colorectal cancer (CRC). The first-line chemotherapeutic agent 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) is used to treat CRC, but its efficiency is hampered by acquired drug resistance. This study found that a water extract of DY exerted anti-proliferative effects against two CRC cell lines (HCT-116 and RKO), and it sensitized CRC cells to 5-FU therapy by activating a reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated, mitochondria-caspase-dependent apoptotic pathway. Co-treatment of DY and 5-FU significantly elevated ROS levels, up-regulated Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and triggered mitochondrial dysfunction, followed by a release of cytochrome c and up-regulation of proteins such as cleaved-caspase-9/3 and cleaved-PARP. Additionally, the induction of autophagy may be involved in mediating synergism of DY in HCT-116 cells. Gallic acid (GA), catechinic acid (CA) and ellagic acid (EA) were identified as the potential chief constituents responsible for the synergistic effects of DY. In conclusion, co-treatment of DY, specifically GA, CA and EA, with 5-FU may be a potential alternative therapeutic strategy for CRC by enhancing an intrinsic apoptotic pathway.

Anti-inflammatory effects of Sanguisorbae Radix water extract on the suppression of mast cell degranulation and STAT-1/Jak-2 activation in BMMCs and HaCaT keratinocytes

Background

Sanguisorbae Radix (SR) is a well-known herbal medicine used to treat inflammatory disease and skin burns in Asia. In addition, it is used to treat many types of allergic skin diseases, including urticaria, eczema, and allergic dermatitis. SR has been reported to exhibit anti-wrinkle, anti-oxidant, and anti-contact dermatitis bioactivities.

Methods

In this study, we investigated the mechanism underlying the anti-inflammatory effects of SR water extract (WSR) using human keratinocyte (HaCaT) cells and BALB/c mouse bone marrow-derived mast cells (BMMCs). Viability assays were used to evaluate non-cytotoxic concentrations of WSR in both BMMCs and HaCaT cells. To investigate the effect of WSR treatment on the degranulation of IgE/Ag-activated BMMCs, we measured the release of β-hexosaminidase (β-HEX). We determined the production of pro-inflammatory chemokines including thymus and activation regulated chemokine (TARC; CCL17), regulated on activation, normal T-cell expressed and secreted (RANTES; CCL5), macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC; CCL22), and interleukin 8 (IL-8; CXCL8) in stimulated human keratinocytes. The ability of WSR to reduce the expression of pro-inflammatory marker proteins was evaluated by Western blotting in HaCaT cells stimulated with tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α/interferon (IFN)-γ.

Result

WSR inhibited IgE/Ag-activated mast cell degranulation in BMMCs. Treatment with various concentrations of WSR decreased β-HEX release in a dose-dependent manner with an IC₅₀ of 27.5 μg/mL. In keratinocytes, WSR suppressed TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced chemokine production and pro-inflammatory molecules via a blockade STAT-1, Jak-2, p38, and JNK activation.

Conclusions

This results demonstrate that WSR inhibits degranulation of IgE/Ag-activated mast cells and inhibits the production of pro-inflammatory chemokines by suppressing the phosphorylation of p38 and JNK in HaCaT cells.

Chemical Composition, Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activities of Sanguisorba officinalis L. Extracts

Sanquisorba officinalis has been used internally for the treatment of intestinal infections and duodenal ulcers, as well as hemorrhoids, phlebitis and varicose veins and female disorders, and topically to heal wounds, burns, and ulcers. In our study, the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, as well as quantitative analysis of polyphenols (phenolic acids, flavonoids and total polyphenols) in methanol and aqueous extracts from S. officinalis herbs are presented. A correlation between the antioxidant activity and composition of tested extracts indicates that flavonoids are the major compounds causing scavenging of free radicals. Higher content of flavonoids was found in the methanol extract, while the content of total phenolics was higher in the aqueous extract. Both extracts from S. officinalis herbs showed antioxidant activity and high antimicrobial activity in a wide spectrum of test strains.

Quantitative Analysis and In vitro Anti-inflammatory Effects of Gallic Acid, Ellagic Acid, and Quercetin from Radix Sanguisorbae

BACKGROUND

Radix Sanguisorbae has long been used to treat diarrhea, enteritis, duodenal ulcers, and internal hemorrhage.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated the in vitro anti-inflammatory effects of Radix Sanguisorbae and performed quantitative analyses of three marker components, namely gallic acid, ellagic acid, and quercetin, using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with a photodiode array detector.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The three marker components were separated using a reversed-phase Gemini C18 analytical column maintained at 40°C by the gradient elution with two solvent systems. We examined the biological effects of the three marker compounds, gallic acid, ellagic acid, and quercetin, by determining their anti-inflammatory activities in the murine macrophage cell line RAW 264.7.

RESULTS

All of the marker compounds exhibited inhibitory effects on prostaglandin E2 production in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages, with no cytotoxicity. Particularly, ellagic acid significantly inhibited production of the proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-6 in LPS-treated RAW 264.7 cells.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that ellagic acid is the most potent bioactive phytochemical component of radix Sanguisorbae in the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

SUMMARY

Established high-performance liquid chromatography method was applied in the quantitative analysis of gallic acid, ellagic acid, and quercetin present in an extract from radix SanguisorbaeAmong the three compounds, the ellagic acid.(7.65.mg/g) is main component in radix SanguisorbaeEllagic acid significantly inhibited production of the proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-6 in lipopolysaccharide-treated RAW 264.7 cells. Abbreviations used: HPLC: High-performance liquid chromatography, PDA: Photodiode array, TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor alpha, IL: Interleukin, LPS: Lipopolysaccharide, PGE2: Prostaglandin E2, NSAIDs: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, COX: Cyclooxygenase.

Ethanol Extract of Sanguisorbae Radix Inhibits Mast Cell Degranulation and Suppresses 2,4-Dinitrochlorobenzene-Induced Atopic Dermatitis-Like Skin Lesions

Sanguisorbae Radix (SR) is well known as herbal medicine named “Zi-Yu” in Korea, which is the dried roots of Sanguisorba officinalis L. (Rosacease). We investigated the underlying mechanism on the inhibition of atopic dermatitis (AD) of an ethanol extract of SR (ESR) using 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene- (DNCB-) induced AD mice model. Oral administration of ESR significantly suppressed DNCB-induced AD-like symptoms such as scratching behavior, ear thickness, epidermal thickness, and IgE levels. To investigate the effects of ESR treatment on degranulation of IgE/Ag-activated mouse bone marrow-derived mast cells (BMMCs), we measured the release of β-hexosaminidase (β-HEX, degranulation marker). ESR decreased the infiltration of eosinophils and mast cells into the AD skin lesions. Furthermore, ESR significantly inhibited degranulation of IgE/Ag-activated BMMCs. We have demonstrated that ESR decreased AD symptoms in mice and inhibits degranulation of IgE/Ag-activated mast cells. Our study suggests that ESR may serve as a potential therapeutic candidate for the treatment of AD symptoms.

Ethanol extract of Sanguisorba officinalis L. inhibits biofilm formation of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in an ica-dependent manner

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is an important nosocomial pathogen that shows resistance to many antibiotics and is usually associated with serious infections. Having the ability for biofilm formation increases resistance to antibiotics. Sanguisorba officinalis L. is a perennial plant that is distributed in the northern districts of China and has been used as a traditional Chinese medicine. In this study, the effect of S. officinalis on MRSA strain SA3 isolated from a dairy cow with mastitis was evaluated by testing the growth and biofilm formation ability of MRSA cultured with or without ethanol extracts of S. officinalis. The results showed that the ethanol extract of S. officinalis strongly inhibited the biofilm formation of MRSA. With a confocal laser scanning microscope system, we observed that the biofilm structure of the test group with the addition of S. officinalis appeared looser and had less biomass compared with the control group without S. officinalis. Furthermore, we found that the transcript levels of the icaADBC operon remarkably decreased upon addition of the ethanol extract of S. officinalis, indicating that S. officinalis inhibits biofilm formation of MRSA in an ica-dependent manner.

Macrophage activation induced by the polysaccharides isolated from the roots of Sanguisorba officinalis

CONTEXT

Macrophage, involved at all stages of immune response, is an important component of the host defense system. Polysaccharides exist almost ubiquitously in medical plants and most of them possess immunomodulation and macrophage activation properties.

OBJECTIVE

This study elucidates the effects on macrophage activation and molecular mechanism induced by the polysaccharides (SOPs) from the roots of Sanguisorba officinalis Linne (Rosaceae).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Polysaccharides (SOPs) from the roots of S. officinalis were obtained by water extraction and ethanol precipitation. Physicochemical characterization of SOPs was analyzed by phenol-sulfuric acid, m-hydroxydiphenyl, Bradford method, and gas chromatography. Phagocytic capacity of RAW 264.7 macrophages incubated with SOPs (25 and 100 μg/ml) was determined by the aseptic neutral red method. Macrophages were incubated with SOPs (25 and 100 μg/ml), and the TNF-α and NO the secretion were measured using ELISA kit and Griess reagent, respectively. In addition, TNF-α and iNOS transcripts were evaluated by semi-quantitative RT-PCR, and NF-κB signaling activation was detected by Western blot assay.

RESULTS

SOPs enhanced the phagocytosis capacity of macrophages to aseptic neutral red solution and increased TNF-α and NO secretion. The amounts of TNF-α and iNOS transcript were increased significantly at the mRNA level when macrophages were exposed to SOPs. Meanwhile, the stimulation of macrophages by SOPs induced phosphorylation of p65 at serine 536 and a marked decrease of IκB expression.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

These results suggested that SOPs exhibited significant macrophage activation properties through NF-κB signaling pathway and could be considered as a new immunopotentiator.

Inhibitory function of P-selectin-mediated leukocyte adhesion by the polysaccharides from Sanguisorba officinalis

CONTEXT

P-selectin is a promising target for inflammatory-related diseases. Polysaccharides are the active ingredients of Sanguisorba officinalis L. (Rosaceae) responsible for its anti-inflammatory activities; however, the molecular mechanism is not clear yet.

OBJECTIVE

This study evaluates the effects of polysaccharides (SOPs) from Sanguisorba officinalis on their antagonistic function against P-selectin-mediated leukocyte adhesion.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The antagonistic function of SOPs was investigated by flow cytometry and static adhesion assay at the concentrations of 25 and 100 μg/ml. The dynamic interaction between HL-60 cells and CHO-P cell monolayer treated with SOPs (25 and 100 μg/ml) was analyzed in a parallel plate flow chamber, and quantitatively calculated by ImageJ software (NIH, Bethesda, MD). In vitro protein binding assay was carried out to evaluate the blocking effects of SOPs (25 and 100 μg/ml) on the interaction between P-selectin and PSGL-1.

RESULTS

SOPs-treatment (100 μg/ml) significantly reduced the percentage of HL-60 cells binding to P-selectin (p < 0.01) determined by flow cytometry. In addition, SOPs (25 and 100 μg/ml) markedly blocked the adhesion between HL-60 cells and CHO-P cells under static condition, and the inhibitory rates reached 39.9% and 71.2%, respectively. Compared with the positive control group, SOPs-treatment (25 and 100 μg/ml) significantly reduced the percentage of HL-60 cells rolling on CHO-P cell monolayers by 43.5% and 75.2%, respectively. Protein binding assay showed the interaction between P-selectin and PSGL-1 was significantly blocked by SOPs.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

SOPs possess a significant antagonistic function against P-selectin-mediated leukocyte adhesion, and SOPs could be considered as a promising candidate for amelioration of inflammation-related diseases.

A polysaccharide from Sanguisorbae radix induces caspase-dependent apoptosis in human leukemia HL-60 cells

One polysaccharide (SRP) was purified from Sanguisorbae radix by DEAE-cellulose-52 anion-exchange and Sephacryl S-400 gel filtration chromatography. The aim of this study was to evaluate the anticancer efficacy of SRP on human leukemia HL-60 cells in vitro and unveil the underlying mechanisms. Our results showed that SRP was able to suppress the proliferation of HL-60 cells in a dose-dependent manner by the mechanism involved in the induction of apoptosis. The increase in SRP-induced apoptosis was correlated with a rapid and sustained loss of mitochondrial transmembrane potential (ΔΨm) and a release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria into the cytosol. Furthermore, Western blot and RT-PCR analysis revealed that the protein and mRNA levels of antiapoptotic Bcl-2 were downregulated, whereas those of pro-apoptotic Bax were upregulated. Besides, caspase-9 and caspase-3 were activated, while caspase-8 was intact. Additionally, the apoptotic cells by SRP were significantly inhibited by a caspase-3 inhibitor (z-DEVD-fmk) or a caspase-9 inhibitor (Z-LETD-FMK), demonstrating the important role of caspase-9 and -3 in the process. Taken together, these findings provided evidence that SRP induced the apoptosis of HL-60 cells through an intrinsic mitochondria-mediated signaling pathway and SRP may be a promising chemotherapeutic agent for treatment of leukemia.

1,3-Dichloro-2-propanol inhibits progesterone production through the expression of steroidogenic enzymes and cAMP concentration in Leydig cells

1,3-Dichloro-2-propanol (1,3-DCP) is a well-known food processing contaminant that has been shown to impede male reproductive function. However, its mechanism of action remains elusive. In this study, the effects of 1,3-DCP on progesterone production were investigated using the R2C Leydig cell model. 1,3-DCP significantly reduced cell viability from 7.48% to 97.4% at doses comprised between 0.5 and 6mM. Single cell gel/comet assays and atomic force microscopy assays showed that 1,3-DCP induced early phase cell apoptosis. In addition, 1,3-DCP significantly reduced progesterone production detected by radioimmunoassay (RIA). The results from quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blotting demonstrated that the mRNA expression levels of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), cytochrome P450 side-chain cleavage enzyme and 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase were significantly down-regulated in R2C cells. Particularly, the change rhythm of Star expression was highly consistent with progesterone production. Furthermore, the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and the mitochondrial membrane potential mediated by ROS, which are involved in regulating progesterone synthesis were also decreased in response to the 1,3-DCP treatment. Overall, the data presented here suggested that 1,3-DCP interferes with the male steroidogenic capacity mainly by down-regulating the level of cAMP and the key enzymes involved in the androgen synthesis pathway.

The involvement of PI3K-mediated and L-VGCC-gated transient Ca2+ influx in 17β-estradiol-mediated protection of retinal cells from H2O2-induced apoptosis with Ca2+ overload

Intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) plays an important role in regulating most cellular processes, including apoptosis and survival, but its alterations are different and complicated under diverse conditions. In this study, we focused on the [Ca²⁺]_i and its control mechanisms in process of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)-induced apoptosis of primary cultured Sprague-Dawley (SD) rat retinal cells and 17β-estradiol (βE2) anti-apoptosis. Fluo-3AM was used as a Ca²⁺ indicator to detect [Ca²⁺]_i through fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS), cell viability was assayed using MTT assay, and apoptosis was marked by Hoechst 33342 and annexin V/Propidium Iodide staining. Besides, PI3K activity was detected by Western blotting. Results showed: a) 100 μM H₂O₂-induced retinal cell apoptosis occurred at 4 h after H₂O₂ stress and increased in a time-dependent manner, but [Ca²⁺]_i increased earlier at 2 h, sustained to 12 h, and then recovered at 24 h after H₂O₂ stress; b) 10 μM βE2 treatment for 0.5-24 hrs increased cell viability by transiently increasing [Ca²⁺]_i, which appeared only at 0.5 h after βE2 application; c) increased [Ca²⁺]_i under 100 µM H₂O₂ treatment for 2 hrs or 10 µM βE2 treatment for 0.5 hrs was, at least partly, due to extracellular Ca²⁺ stores; d) importantly, the transiently increased [Ca²⁺]_i induced by 10 µM βE2 treatment for 0.5 hrs was mediated by the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K) and gated by the L-type voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels (L-VGCC), but the increased [Ca²⁺]_i induced by 100 µM H₂O₂ treatment for 2 hrs was not affected; and e) pretreatment with 10 µM βE2 for 0.5 hrs effectively protected retinal cells from apoptosis induced by 100 µM H₂O₂, which was also associated with its transient [Ca²⁺]_i increase through L-VGCC and PI3K pathway. These findings will lead to better understanding of the mechanisms of βE2-mediated retinal protection and to exploration of the novel therapeutic strategies for retina degeneration.

Protective efficacy of an Ecklonia cava extract used to treat transient focal ischemia of the rat brain

Phlorotannins (marine algal polyphenols) have been reported to exhibit beneficial biological activities, serving as both antioxidants and anti-inflammatory agents. Among marine algae, Ecklonia cava, a member of the Laminariaceae, is a very popular food regarded as healthy in Korea and Japan. Recently, benefits afforded by phlorotannins in the treatment of various clinical conditions have been reported, but any therapeutic effects of such materials in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as stroke remain unclear. Also, the mechanisms of action of the algal components remain poorly understood. In the present in vivo study, administration of Ecklonia cava polyphenols (ECP) at 10 mg/kg and 50 mg/kg intraperitoneally (i.p.) significantly decreased infarct size and the extent of brain edema in the rat after induction of transient focal ischemia via middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). Further, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end-labeling (TUNEL) assay revealed dose-dependent blockage of neuronal apoptosis upon intravenous ECP treatment. Neurobehavioral tests performed over the 6 days after MCAO revealed a reduction in neurological motor performance in control animals, but administration of ECP (50 mg/kg i.p.) prevented this decline. In vitro, a significant neuroprotective effect of ECP was evident when cell viability was assayed after induction of H₂O₂-mediated oxidative stress, upon retinoic acid treatment, in the differentiated neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y. Interestingly, ECP blocked the rise in cytosolic calcium, in a dose-dependent manner, in differentiated SH-SY5Y cells exposed to H₂O₂. Together, the results suggest that ECP exerts neuroprotective effects in the focally ischemic brain by reducing Ca²⁺-mediated neurotoxicity.

Inhibitory effect of Sanguisorba officinalis ethanol extract on NO and PGE₂ production is mediated by suppression of NF-κB and AP-1 activation signaling cascade

AIM OF THE STUDY

Sanguisorba officinalis, a well known valuable medicinal plant in Korea, China and Japan used traditionally for the treatment of inflammatory and metabolic diseases such as diarrhea, chronic intestinal infections, duodenal ulcers, and bleeding. Recent studies have revealed that its aqueous or ethanolic extracts exhibit a variety of pharmacological activities such as anti-oxidative, anti-cancer, anti-lipid peroxidation, anti-atherogenic, and vasorelaxant effects. Systematic studies on the anti-inflammatory effect of this plant and its molecular mechanisms have not yet been fully investigated. Ethanol extract of Sanguisorba officinalis (So-EE) the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated macrophages and production of inflammatory mediators were employed to assess these properties.

RESULTS

So-EE significantly suppressed the production of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin (PG) E(2) from LPS-activated RAW264.7 cells and peritoneal macrophages in a dose-dependent manner. This extract effectively diminished the mRNA levels of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, implying that the blockade is generated at the transcriptional level. So-EE strongly blocked the activation and translocation of NF-κB and AP-1 by suppressing the upstream kinases including inhibitor of κBα (IκBα), IκBα kinase (IKK), Akt (protein kinase B), phosphoinositide-dependent kinase 1 (PDK1), p85/phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K), and mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) such as extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p38, and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK). Moreover, So-EE suppressed the phosphorylation of Src, its kinase activity, and complex formation between Src and p85.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that So-EE has a potent anti-inflammatory activity mediated by NF-κB, and AP-1 inhibitory properties linked to the suppression of Src and MAPK activation.

HPLC and LC-MS analysis of sinomenine and its application in pharmacokinetic studies in rats

AIM

To improve and validate analytical methods based on HPLC and liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS) for the quantitative measurement of sinomenine in rat plasma and brain tissue.

METHODS

The separation of analytes and the internal standard (IS), chloramphenicol, was performed on an Agilent TC-C18 column (250×4.6 mm, 5 μm). Blood samples were measured with a Surveyor photodiode array (PDA) detector at a wavelength of 263 nm. The LCQ DECA XP(Plus) mass spectrometer was operated in the multiple reactions monitoring mode using positive electrospray ionization, and the transition from the precursor ion (m/z 279) to the product ion (m/z 224) for sinomenine was measured in brain tissue.

RESULTS

Measurements were linear over the concentration range of 0.1-100 μg/mL for sinomenine in plasma and over the range of 0.01-5.00 μg/g for sinomenine in brain tissue. The intra- and inter-day variabilities were less than 10% of the relative standard deviation (RSD), and the extraction and recovery of sinomenine was 72.48%-80.26% from plasma and 73.75%-80.26% from brain tissue. The limit of quantification (LOQ) was 0.1 μg/mL for plasma, and 0.01 μg/g for brain tissue. Identification of sinomenine was reproducible at 0.5, 5, and 50 μg/mL in the plasma and at 0.05, 0.50, and 2.00 μg/g in brain tissue. The concentration of sinomenine measured in brain tissue after a single ip dose had a neuroprotective effect on H₂O₂-induced injury in PC12 cells in vitro.

CONCLUSION

Our methods offered a sensitivity within a wide linear concentration range for sinomenine. These methods were successfully applied to evaluate sinomenine pharmacokinetics over time in rat brain tissue after a single ip dose of 30 mg/kg.

Inflammaging as a prodrome to Alzheimer's disease

Recently, the term "inflammaging" was coined by Franceshci and colleagues to characterize a widely accepted paradigm that ageing is accompanied by a low-grade chronic up-regulation of certain pro-inflammatory responses. Inflammaging differs significantly from the traditional five cardinal features of acute inflammation in that it is characterized by a relative decline in adaptive immunity and T-helper 2 responses and is associated with increased innate immunity by cells of the mononuclear phagocyte lineage. While the over-active innate immunity characteristic of inflammaging may remain subclinical in many elderly individuals, a portion of individuals (postulated to have a "high responder inflammatory genotype") may shift from a state of "normal" or "subclinical" inflammaging to one or more of a number of age-associated diseases. We and others have found that IFN-γ and other pro-inflammatory cytokines interact with processing and production of Aβ peptide, the pathological hallmark feature of Alzheimer's disease (AD), suggesting that inflammaging may be a "prodrome" to AD. Although conditions of enhanced innate immune response with overproduction of pro-inflammatory proteins are associated with both healthy aging and AD, it is suggested that those who age "well" demonstrate anti-inflammaging mechanisms and biomarkers that likely counteract the adverse immune response of inflammaging. Thus, opposing the features of inflammaging may prevent or treat the symptoms of AD. In this review, we fully characterize the aging immune system. In addition, we explain how three novel treatments, (1) human umbilical cord blood cells (HUCBC), (2) flavanoids, and (3) Aβ vaccination oppose the forces of inflammaging and AD-like pathology in various mouse models.