Inotropic effects and mechanisms of matrine, a main alkaloid from Sophora flavescens AIT

Sophorae tonkinensis Radix et Rhizoma: A comprehensive review of the ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, toxicology and detoxification strategy

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Sophorae tonkinensis Radix et Rhizoma (STR), the dried root and rhizome of Sophora tonkinensis Gagnep., is commonly used in the treatment of tonsillitis and pharyngitis, throat soreness and throat obstruction, swelling and aching of gum, etc. in China or other Asian countries. STR is usually used as the core herb in traditional Chinese medicine preparations, such as "Biyanling Tablets", "Fufang Muji Granules" and "Ganyanling Injections", etc. AIM OF THE REVIEW: This review aimed to provide a comprehensive analysis of STR in terms of botany, traditional use, phytochemistry, ethnopharmacology, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, toxicology and detoxification strategy, to provide a rational application in future research.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The information involved in the study was gathered from a variety of electronic resources, including China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), SciFinder, Google Scholar, PubMed, Web of Science, and Chinese Masters and Doctoral Dissertations.

RESULTS

Till now, a total of 333 chemical components have been identified in STR, including 85 alkaloids, 124 flavonoids, 24 triterpenes, 27 triterpene saponins, 34 organic acids, 8 polysaccharides, etc. STR and its main active constituents have cardiovascular protection, anti-tumor activity, anti-inflammatory activity, antipyretic activity, analgesic activity, antibacterial activity, antifungal activity, antiviral activity, and hepatoprotective activity, etc. However, toxic effects of STR on the liver, nerves, heart, and gastrointestinal tract have also been observed. To mitigate these risks, STR needs attenuation before use, with the most common detoxification methods being processing and combined use with other drugs. The pharmacokinetics of STR in vivo and traditional and clinical prescriptions containing STR have been sorted out. Despite the potential therapeutic benefits of STR, further research is warranted to elucidate its hepatotoxicity, particularly in vivo, exploring aspects such as in vivo metabolism, distribution, and mechanisms.

CONCLUSION

This review serves to emphasize the therapeutic potential of STR and highlights the crucial need to address its toxicity concerns before considering clinical application. Further research is required to comprehensively investigate the toxicological properties of STR, with particular emphasis on its hepatotoxicity and neurotoxicity. Such research endeavors have the potential to standardize the rational application of STR for optimal therapeutic outcomes.

Alkaloids from the roots of Sophora flavescens and their anti-tumor activity

Sophora flavescens belongs to Sophora genus of Leguminosae. Its roots are used as a traditional Chinese medicine. In our study on Sophora flavescens roots, 3 new and 19 known alkaloids have been found, including 8 aloperine-type and 14 matrine-type alkaloids. The planar configurations of these compounds were determined by the spectral data, and the absolute configurations of new compounds 1, 2 and 4 were determined by pyridine solvent effect, ECD and snatzke methods, respectively. All compounds were tested for their inhibitory activity on MCF-7 cell growth, and compound 12 exhibited certain inhibitory effects on the growth of MCF-7 cells after 24 h of treatment at a concentration of 20 μM, with inhibition rates of 31.28%. Through target screening and molecular docking, human Rho GTPase activating protein 5 variant and human arachidonate 12-lipoxygenase (12S-type) might be important targets for compound 12 to exert anti-tumor activity.

Further Quinolizidine Derivatives as Antiarrhythmic Agents- 3

Fourteen quinolizidine derivatives, structurally related to the alkaloids lupinine and cytisine and previously studied for other pharmacological purposes, were presently tested for antiarrhythmic, and other cardiovascular effects on isolated guinea pig heart tissues in comparison to well-established reference drugs. According to their structures, the tested compounds are assembled into three subsets: (a) N-(quinolizidinyl-alkyl)-benzamides; (b) 2-(benzotriazol-2-yl)methyl-1-(quinolizidinyl)alkyl-benzimidazoles; (c) N-substituted cytisines. All compounds but two displayed antiarrhythmic activity that was potent for compounds 4, 1, 6, and 5 (in ascending order). The last compound (N-(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzoyl)aminohomolupinane) was outstanding, exhibiting a nanomolar potency (EC50 = 0.017 µM) for the increase in the threshold of ac-arrhythmia. The tested compounds shared strong negative inotropic activity; however, this does not compromise the value of their antiarrhythmic action. On the other hand, only moderate or modest negative chronotropic and vasorelaxant activities were commonly observed. Compound 5, which has high antiarrhythmic potency, a favorable cardiovascular profile, and is devoid of antihypertensive activity in spontaneously hypertensive rats, represents a lead worthy of further investigation.

Quinolizidine alkaloids derivatives from Sophora alopecuroides Linn: Bioactivities, structure-activity relationships and preliminary molecular mechanisms

Quinolizidine alkaloids, as essential active ingredients extracted from Sophora alopecuroides Linn, have been well concerned in the past several decades owing to the unique structural features and numerous pharmacological activities. Quinolizidine alkaloids consist of matrine, oxymatrine, sophoridine, sophocarpine and aloperine etc. Additionally, quinolizidine alkaloids exert various excellent activities, including anti-cancer, anti-inflammation, anti-fibrosis, anti-virus and anti-arrhythmia regulations. In this review, we comprehensively clarify the pharmacological activities of quinolizidine alkaloids, as well as the relationship between biological function and structure-activity of substituted quinolizidine alkaloids. We believe that biological agents based on the pharmacological functions of quinolizidine alkaloids could be well applied in clinical practice.

An integrated characterization of contractile, electrophysiological, and structural cardiotoxicity of Sophora tonkinensis Gapnep. in human pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes

BACKGROUND

Cardiotoxicity remains an important concern in drug discovery and clinical medication. Meanwhile, Sophora tonkinensis Gapnep. (S. tonkinensis) held great value in the clinical application of traditional Chinese medicine, but cardiotoxic effects were reported, with matrine, oxymatrine, cytisine, and sophocarpine being the primary toxic components.

METHODS

In this study, impedance and extracellular field potential (EFP) of human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) were recorded using the cardio non-labeled cell function analysis and culture system (Cardio-NLCS). The effects of matrine, oxymatrine, cytisine, and sophocarpine (2, 10, 50 μM) on cell viability; level of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), creatine kinase MB isoenzyme (CK-MB), and cardiac troponin I (CTn-I); antioxidant activities; production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA); and disruption of intracellular calcium homeostasis were also added into the integrated assessment.

RESULTS

The results showed that matrine and sophocarpine dose-dependently affected both impedance and EFP, while oxymatrine and cytisine altered impedance significantly. Our study also indicated that cardiotoxicity of matrine, oxymatrine, cytisine, and sophocarpine was related to the disruption of calcium homeostasis and oxidative stress. Four alkaloids of S. tonkinensis showed significant cardiotoxicity with dose dependence and structural cardiotoxicity synchronized with functional changes of cardiomyocytes.

CONCLUSIONS

This finding may provide guidance for clinical meditation management. Furthermore, this study introduced an efficient and reliable approach, which offers alternative options for evaluating the cardiotoxicity of the listed drugs and novel drug candidates.

Research advances on anticancer activities of matrine and its derivatives: An updated overview

Cancer is the second leading cause of mortality, only overcome by cardiovascular diseases, and has caused more than 8.7 million deaths in 2015 all over the world. This figure is expected to rise to about 13.1 million by 2030. In order to prevent or cure this fatal illness, substantial efforts have been devoted to develop and discover new anticancer drugs with same or better antitumor activity but lesser toxicity. Matrine is an alkaloid isolated from Sophora flavescens Ait. For decades, matrine and its derivatives have been studied as antineoplastic agents which predominantly work by inhibiting proliferation and inducing apoptosis of cancer cells. The mechanism responsible for the anticancer activity of matrine can be recognized via up-regulating or down-regulating expression of the cancer related molecules, eventually causing tumor cell death. This review summarizes research developments of matrine and its derivatives as anticancer agents. A few possible research directions, suggestions and clues for future work on the development of novel matrine-based anticancer agents with improved expected activities and lesser toxicity have also been provided.

The Role of Biologically Active Ingredients from Natural Drug Treatments for Arrhythmias in Different Mechanisms

Arrhythmia is a disease that is caused by abnormal electrical activity in the heart rate or rhythm. It is the major cause of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Although several antiarrhythmic drugs have been used in clinic for decades, their application is often limited by their adverse effects. As a result, natural drugs, which have fewer side effects, are now being used to treat arrhythmias. We searched for all articles on the role of biologically active ingredients from natural drug treatments for arrhythmias in different mechanisms in PubMed. This study reviews 19 natural drug therapies, with 18 active ingredient therapies, such as alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, quinones, and terpenes, and two kinds of traditional Chinese medicine compound (Wenxin-Keli and Shensongyangxin), all of which have been studied and reported as having antiarrhythmic effects. The primary focus is the proposed antiarrhythmic mechanism of each natural drug agent. Conclusion. We stress persistent vigilance on the part of the provider in discussing the use of natural drug agents to provide a solid theoretical foundation for further research on antiarrhythmia drugs.

Development of a Novel Electrochemical Sensor for Determination of Matrine in Sophora flavescens

A simple and sensitive electrochemical sensor fabricated with graphene nanosheets (GNs) and a hydroxyapatite (HA) nanocomposite-modified glassy carbon electrode (GCE) was developed for the determination of matrine (MT). The as-prepared electrode (GNs/HA/GCE) was verified to outperform bare a GCE and GNs-modified electrode with increased oxidation peak currents and the decreased over-potential in the redox process of MT, indicating the great enhancement of electrocatalytic activity toward the oxidation of MT by the composite of GNs and HA. Under the optimized conditions, the oxidation peak currents were related linearly with the concentration of MT, ranging from 2 μM to 3 mM, and the detection limit (S/N = 3) was 1.2 μM. In addition, the proposed electrochemical sensor can be successfully applied in the quantitative determination of MT in Sophora flavescens extract.

Matrine improved the function of heart failure in rats via inhibiting apoptosis and blocking β3‑adrenoreceptor/endothelial nitric oxide synthase pathway

Matrine, an alkaloid isolated from the traditional Chinese medicine Sophora flavescens AIT has exhibited a number of therapeutic effects on cardiovascular and liver diseases. The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether matrine has a protective effect on heart failure in rats. Coronary artery ligation was used to induce a heart failure (CHF) model in rats. Four weeks following the procedure, the rats were treated with different doses of matrine for one month. Histopathological examination demonstrated that matrine treatment alleviated myocardial hypertrophy and cardiac fibrosis in failing hearts. Furthermore, matrine administration also inhibited the increase of plasma aspartate amino transferase, creatine phosphokinase and lactate dehydrogenase levels in CHF rats. The rats with heart failure exhibited a significant reduction in ejection fraction and fractional shortening, as well as an increase in the left ventricular end systolic dimension, and matrine attenuated this decline in heart function. Further investigation demonstrated that matrine treatment also inhibited the upregulation of Bax and increase in the Bcl‑2 expression in the failing hearts. Furthermore, the upregulation of β3-adrenoreceptor (AR) and endothelial nitric oxide synthase proteins following heart failure were also attenuated by matrine. In conclusion, matrine had a preventive role in heart failure in rats at least in part by inhibiting myocardial apoptosis and the β3-AR pathway.

The alkaloid matrine of the root of Sophora flavescens prevents arrhythmogenic effect of ouabain

Matrine, a alkaloid of the root of Sophora flavescens, has multiple protective effects on the cardiovascular system including cardiac arrhythmias. However, the molecular and ionic mechanisms of matrine have not been well investigated. Our study aimed at to shed a light on the issue to investigate the antiarrhythmic effects of matrine by using ouabain to construct an arrhythmic model of cardiomyocytes. In this experiment, matrine significantly and dose-dependently increased the doses of ouabain required to induce cardiac arrhythmias and decreased the duration of arrhythmias in guinea pigs. In cardiomyocytes of guinea pigs, ouabain 10 μM prolonged action potential duration by 80% (p<0.05) and increased L-type Ca(2+) currents and Ca(2+) transients induced by KCl (p<0.05). Matrine 100 μM shortened the prolongation of APD and prevented the increase of L-type Ca(2+) currents and Ca(2+) transients induced by ouabain. Taken together, these findings provide the first evidence that matrine possessed arrhythmogenic effect of ouabain by inhibiting of L-type Ca(2+) currents and Ca(2+) overload in guinea pigs.

Matrine regulates glutamate-related excitotoxic factors in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

It is increasingly accepted that glutamate excitotoxicity contributes to the death of nerve cells in multiple sclerosis (MS). Matrine (MAT) is a quinolizidine alkaloid that has long been used in the treatment of hepatitis B without obvious side effects. Previous reports have shown that MAT suppresses central nervous system inflammation and demyelination in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of MS; however whether MAT effectively inhibits excitotoxic molecules, such as glutamate-related factors, is still unclear. In this study, we provide data showing that MAT attenuated EAE disease severity, accompanied by downregulated glutamate and upregulated GABA levels, as well as enhanced expression of two dependent glutamate transporters (GLT-1 and GLAST). In addition, MAT treatment significantly reduced the level of the NMDA- and AMPA-glutamate receptor in EAE rats. Taken together, our data indicate that MAT treatment regulates glutamate-related molecules, and suggests that the neuroprotective role of MAT is a novel mechanism underlying its therapeutic effect in EAE.

Total alkaloids from Sophora alopecuroides L. increase susceptibility of extended-spectrum β-lactamases producing Escherichia coli isolates to cefotaxime and ceftazidime

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the antimicrobial activity of total alkaloids extracted from Sophorea alopecuroides L. (TASA) against clinical isolated extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs) producing Escherichia coli (E. coli) strains.

METHODS

The antibacterial activity of TASA either itself or in combination with cefotaxime (CTX) or ceftazidime (CAZ) was investigated by using the microbroth dilution method and phenotypic confirmatory disk diffusion test against three clinical isolated ESBLs-producing E. coli strains; the interactions of TASA and CTX or CAZ were ascertained by evaluating the fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICI).

RESULTS

The antibacterial activity of either TASA itself or in combination with CTX or CAZ was found. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MICs) of TASA against the ESBLs producing isolates was 12.5 mg/mL. In the combinations with a sub-inhibitory concentration of TASA, a synergistic effect on CTX and CAZ against the ESBLs producing isolates was observed. Similarly, the isolates exposed to lower dose of TASA yielded an increased susceptibility to CTX and CAZ by 8-16 folds determined by microdilution assay. Moreover, enzymatic detection of ESBLs demonstrated that TASA induced reversal resistance to CTX and CAZ partially by a mechanism of inhibition of ESBLs activity in these isolates. Additionally, in the tested isolates following the exposure of TASA, molecular analysis verified the SHV-type beta-lactamase encoding ESBL gene in these isolates, and no mutation was introduced into the ESBL gene.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that TASA could be used as a source of natural compound with pharmacological activity of reversal resistance to antimicrobial agent. These findings also indicated that the application of the TASA in combination with antibiotics might prove useful in the control and treatment of infectious diseases caused by the ESBLs producing enterobacteriaceae.

Matrine inhibits pacing induced atrial fibrillation by modulating I(KM3) and I(Ca-L)

AIM

To elucidate the protective effects of Matrine on atrial fibrillation (AF) induced by electric pacing in mice and underlying molecular and ion channel mechanisms.

METHODS

AF was introduced by electric pacing in mice and the incidence and duration of AF were evaluated. Functional expression of M(3) receptor (M(3)-R) and Cav1.2 were explored by western and Real-time PCR, action potential (AP) and the density of (I(KM3)) L-type calcium channel (I(Ca-L)) were both recorded using whole-cell patch in isolated atrial cardiomyocytes.

RESULTS

In control group, incidence and duration of AF induced by electric pacing were 50 ± 17% and 3.68 ± 1.84 s, respectively; after application of carbachol 50 µg/kg both incidence and duration of AF were significantly increased to 86 ± 24% and 65.2 ± 29.0 s. Compared with control group, pretreatment of Matrine for 15 days significantly reduced AF incidence and duration in dose-dependent manner. Atrial membrane-protein expression of M(3)-R was decreased and membrane Cav1.2 expression was up-regulated. In single Matrine-treated atrial cardiomyocyte the density of I(KM3) was significantly decreased by 39% as well compared with control group, P < 0.05, whereas, I(Ca-L) density of atrium was increased by 40%.

CONCLUSION

These data demonstrated at the first time that the anti-AF effects of Matrine may due, at least in part, to down-regulation of I(KM3) density and M(3)-R expression and up-regulation of I(Ca-L )density and α1C/Cav1.2 expression.

The mechanism of vasorelaxation induced by ethanol extract of Sophora flavescens in rat aorta

AIM OF THE STUDY

Sophora flavescens (SF) is a known medicinal herb for the treatment of cardiovascular symptoms associated with arrhythmia in China. However, the pharmacological action mechanisms involved have not been well studied. The aim of the present study was to define effects of roots of SF on the vascular tension and responsible mechanisms in rat thoracic aorta.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ethanol extract of the roots of SF (ESF) was examined for their vascular relaxant effect in isolated phenylephrine-precontracted rat thoracic aorta.

RESULTS

ESF (0.1-100 μg/ml) induced relaxation of the phenylephrine-precontracted aortic rings in a concentration-dependent manner. Endothelium-denudation abolished the ESF-induced vasorelaxation. Pretreatment of the endothelium-intact aortic rings with l-NAME, an inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase, and ODQ, an inhibitor of soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC), inhibited ESF-induced vasorelaxation. ESF increased cGMP levels of the aortic rings in a concentration-dependent manner and the effect was blocked by l-NAME and ODQ. Inhibition of K(+) channels with glibenclamide and tetraethylammonium, cyclooxygenase inhibition with indomethacin, and β-adrenergic and muscarinic receptors blockade had no effect on the ESF-induced vasorelaxation.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that ESF relaxes vascular smooth muscle via endothelium-dependent NO-sGC-cGMP signaling pathway.

Cardioprotective effect of matrine on isoproterenol-induced cardiotoxicity in rats

OBJECTIVES

This study was designed to explore the effect and mechanism of matrine, an active component of Chinese traditional medicine, on isoproterenol-induced acute cardiotoxicity in rats.

METHODS

Acute myocardial injury was induced in rats by daily subcutaneous injection of isoproterenol (85 mg/kg) for two days. Haemodynamic and biochemical parameters were measured and histopathological examination was performed.

KEY FINDINGS

Chronic oral administration of matrine (50, 100 or 200 mg/kg per day for 10 days) significantly reduced the release of lactic dehydrogenase, glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase and creatine kinase after isoproterenol-induced myocardial ischaemic injury, improved the left ventricular (LV) dysfunction, including increased LV systolic pressure (LVSP), maximum rate of developed LV pressure (LV dP/dt(max)) and minimum rate of developed LV pressure (LV dP/dt(min)), increased the activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase, and also decreased the content of the lipid peroxidation product malondialdehyde in plasma and myocardial tissues in rats. Acute oral administration of matrine at a dose of 100 or 200 mg/kg for two days also had a cardioprotective effect on this rat model. The protective role of matrine on isoproterenol-induced myocardial damage was further confirmed by histopathological examination. There were no significant changes in heart rate and blood pressure in all experimental groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that matrine has a significant cardioprotection against isoproterenol-induced cardiotoxicity through its antioxidant property.

Characterization of alkaloids in Sophora flavescens Ait. by high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry

Sophora flavescens Ait., a well-known Chinese herbal medicine, is widely used in clinical practice for the treatment of viral hepatitis, cancer, gastrointestinal hemorrhage, and skin diseases. This paper is the first report on a method based on the combined use of high-performance liquid chromatography, photodiode array detection, and electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry for the comprehensive and systematic separation and characterization of bioactive alkaloids in Sophora flavescens Ait. A total of 22 constituents were identified on the basis of the extracted ion chromatograms for different [M+H](+) ions of the alkaloids present in S. flavescens Ait. Among these, 5 constituents were unambiguously identified by comparing the experimental data on their retention times and MS(n) spectra with those of the authentic compounds, and 17 other constituents were tentatively identified on the basis of their MS(n) fragmentation behaviors and/or molecular weight information from literatures. Furthermore, some characteristic fragmentation pathways of the alkaloids in S. flavescens Ait. were detected and examined. This information may be useful for characterizing the bioactive alkaloids present in S. flavescens Ait. and for possible applications in formulations.

Matrine inhibits vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation by modulating the expression of cell cycle regulatory genes

AIM

To investigate the effect of matrine on proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) and elucidate the underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

Rat aortic VSMCs were cultured in medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum and treated with various concentrations (0, 5, 10, 15, and 20 mg/L) of matrine for 72 h. VSMCs proliferation and cell cycle profiling were assessed using a methylene blue incorporation assay and flow cytometry, respectively. The underlying protein signaling mechanisms were determined using Western blot analysis of the expression levels of cell cycle regulatory genes, including p53, p21, p27, cyclin D1, cyclin E, cyclin-dependent kinase 2 and 4 (cdk2, cdk4), and phosphorylated Rb. The involvement of p21 and p27 pathways was further determined using small interfering RNA (siRNA) knockdown.

RESULTS

Matrine inhibited VSMC proliferation in a dose-dependent manner by promoting G(1) arrest. The G(1) arrest was accompanied by up-regulation of p53 and p21 protein levels, and down-regulation of cyclin D1/cdk4, cyclin E/cdk2 and phosphorylated Rb protein levels. Matrine did not affect p27 expression. Furthermore, the anti-proliferative effect of matrine was abolished by silencing of p21, but not by silencing of p27.

CONCLUSION

Our data indicate that matrine has an inhibitory effect on VSMC proliferation via up-regulation of the p53/p21 signaling pathway and modulation of other cell cycle regulatory genes.