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Wei P, Zhang T, Dong H, Chen Q, Mu X, Hu G. Anti-inflammatory and antiviral activities of cynanversicoside A and cynanversicoside C isolated from Cynanchun paniculatum in influenza A virus-infected mice pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2017; 36:18-25. [PMID: 29157813 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2017.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2017] [Revised: 07/05/2017] [Accepted: 09/24/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Outbreaks of the influenza A virus (IAV) often occur in various avian and mammalian species, including humans, causing serious respiratory injury worldwide. Therapeutic actions are limited to vaccines and a few antiviral drugs. Combination antiviral compounds and anti-inflammatory modulators to control the propagation of viruses would be more efficient therapeutic strategies for infectious diseases. PURPOSE This study was designed to isolate anti-inflammatory and antiviral compounds from Cynanchun paniculatum and elucidate their potential molecular mechanisms. METHODS/STUDY DESIGNS Bioactivity-guided isolation (via in vitro anti-inflammatory assay) was performed on the ethanolic extract of C. paniculatum, the structures of active compounds were elucidated by comparing spectral data (ESI-MS, 1H NMR and 13C NMR) with literature values. The antiviral activity of active compounds against Influenza A virus (IAV) was determined using the cytopathic effect (CPE) inhibition assay. Inhibitory effects of active compounds on influenza A/FM1/1/47 (H1N1) virus infection were also determined by RT-PCR. Effect of active compounds on NF-kB and MAPK signaling pathways after virus infection was determined by ELISA. RESULTS Two compounds that showed great anti-inflammatory activity were isolated from C. paniculatum and elucidated as cynanversicoside A and cynanversicoside C. Cytokine assay demonstrated that cynanversicoside A and cynanversicoside C can suppress the production of TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β in Mice Pulmonary Microvascular Endothelial Cells (MPMEC) after Influenza virus A/FM/1/47 infection (p < .05) and also decreased the expressions of p-p65 and p-IκBα in infected cells. Furthermore, the phosphorylation of p38, ERK and JNK was also significantly attenuated. Subsequently, cynanversicoside A and cynanversicoside C treatment resulted in decreased viral replication and viral mRNA synthesis. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that cynanversicoside A isolated from C. paniculatum has potent anti-inflammatory and antiviral effects on IAV-infected MPMEC by the regulation of NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panying Wei
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine (TCVM), Animal Science and Technology college, Beijing Agricultural College, Beijing 102206, People's Republic of China
| | - Tao Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine (TCVM), Animal Science and Technology college, Beijing Agricultural College, Beijing 102206, People's Republic of China
| | - Hong Dong
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine (TCVM), Animal Science and Technology college, Beijing Agricultural College, Beijing 102206, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiaohong Chen
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine (TCVM), Animal Science and Technology college, Beijing Agricultural College, Beijing 102206, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiang Mu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine (TCVM), Animal Science and Technology college, Beijing Agricultural College, Beijing 102206, People's Republic of China.
| | - Ge Hu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine (TCVM), Animal Science and Technology college, Beijing Agricultural College, Beijing 102206, People's Republic of China.
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Activity of two extracts of Cynanchum paniculatum against Ichthyophthirius multifiliis theronts and tomonts. Parasitology 2016; 144:179-185. [PMID: 27928976 DOI: 10.1017/s003118201600144x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The present study aims to evaluate the antiparasitic activity of active components from Cynanchum paniculatum against Ichthyophthirius multifiliis. The antiparasitic activities of two bioassay-guided fractionationated compounds from C. paniculatum identified as Cynatratoside-A and Cynanversicoside C, by comparing spectral data (NMR and ESI-MS) with literature values, were evaluated by in vitro assay. These showed that both could kill theronts of I. multifiliis at a concentration of 10·0 mg L-1, with the median effective concentration (EC50) values of 4·6 mg L-1 and 5·2 mg L-1 for Cynatratoside-A and Cynanversicoside C, respectively. Encysted tomonts were killed at concentrations of 8·0 mg L-1 with both compounds. In vivo experiments demonstrated that fish treated with both compounds at 15·0 mg L-1 carried significantly fewer parasites than controls (P < 0·05). There were no mortalities among treated fish group compared with 75% mortality of untreated fish. Cynatratoside-A and Cynanversicoside C are therefore potential candidate drugs for use against I. multifiliis.
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Calle JM, Pérez AJ, Simonet AM, Guerra JO, Macías FA. Steroidal Saponins from Furcraea hexapetala Leaves and Their Phytotoxic Activity. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2016; 79:2903-2911. [PMID: 27797203 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.6b00702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Four new steroidal saponins (1-4) along with 13 known saponins were isolated from the leaves of Furcraea hexapetala. The new compounds were identified as (20R,22R,25R)-3β-hydroxy-5α-spirostan-12-one 3-O-{α-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→4)-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1→3)-O-[β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1→3)-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)]-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)-O-β-d-galactopyranoside} (1), (25R)-3β-hydroxy-5α-spirost-20(21)-en-12-one 3-O-{α-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→4)-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1→3)-O-[β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1→3)-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)]-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)-O-β-d-galactopyranoside} (2), (25R)-5α-spirostan-3β-ol 3-O-{β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)-O-β-d-galactopyranoside} (3), and (25R)-5β-spirostan-3β-ol 3-O-{β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1→6)-O-β-d-galactopyranoside} (4) by spectroscopic analysis, including one- and two-dimensional NMR techniques, mass spectrometry, and chemical methods. The phytotoxicity of the isolated compounds against the standard target species Lactuca sativa was evaluated. Structure-activity relationships for these compounds with respect to phytotoxic effects are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan M Calle
- Grupo de Alelopatía, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Instituto de Biomoléculas (INBIO), Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Cádiz , C/ República Saharaui, s/n, 11510-Puerto Real (Cádiz), Spain
| | - Andy J Pérez
- Área Productos Químicos, Unidad de Desarrollo Tecnológico (UDT), Universidad de Concepción , Bío-Bío, Chile
| | - Ana M Simonet
- Grupo de Alelopatía, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Instituto de Biomoléculas (INBIO), Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Cádiz , C/ República Saharaui, s/n, 11510-Puerto Real (Cádiz), Spain
| | - José O Guerra
- Departamento de Licenciatura en Química, Facultad de Química y Farmacia, Universidad Central "Marta Abreu" de Las Villas , Carretera a Camajuaní km 5.5, 54830 Santa Clara, Cuba
| | - Francisco A Macías
- Grupo de Alelopatía, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Instituto de Biomoléculas (INBIO), Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Cádiz , C/ República Saharaui, s/n, 11510-Puerto Real (Cádiz), Spain
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Fu YW, Zhang QZ, Xu DH, Liang JH, Wang B. Antiparasitic effect of cynatratoside-C from Cynanchum atratum against Ichthyophthirius multifiliis on grass carp. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2014; 62:7183-7189. [PMID: 24980562 DOI: 10.1021/jf5018675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Ichthyophthirius multifiliis (Ich), a fish ectoparasite, comprises an important challenge in the aquaculture industry. In this study, a steroidal glycoside, cynatratoside-C, isolated from Cynanchum atratum roots by bioassay-guided fractionation was used to treat I. multifiliis. The cynatratoside-C at 0.25 mg/L demonstrated a 100% mortality of I. multifiliis in vitro after 5 h exposure. The 5 h median effective concentration (EC50) of cynatratoside-C to nonencysted tomonts was 0.083 mg/L. In addition, cynatratoside-C at concentrations of 0.125 and 0.06 mg/L could completely terminate the reproduction of encysted tomonts. The cynatratoside-C at 2 mg/L could cure the infected grass carp within 48 h. The exact mechanism of cynatratoside-C for killing I. multifiliis is unknown, but it manifests itself microscopically through loss of membrane integrity of nonencysted tomonts or through releasing immature theronts from encysted tomonts. The immature theronts finally died before infecting fish. On the basis of these results, cynatratoside-C could be used as a natural anti-I. multifiliis agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao-Wu Fu
- Key Laboratory of Eutrophication and Red Tide Prevention of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Engineering Research Center of Tropical and Subtropical Aquatic Ecological Engineering Ministry of Education, Institute of Hydrobiology, Jinan University , Guangzhou 510632, People's Republic of China
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Zhang Y, Liu J, Kou J, Yu J, Yu B. DT-13 suppresses MDA-MB-435 cell adhesion and invasion by inhibiting MMP-2/9 via the p38 MAPK pathway. Mol Med Rep 2012; 6:1121-5. [PMID: 22923256 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2012.1047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2012] [Accepted: 04/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous research has shown that the Dwarf lilyturf tuber has antitumor effects. The antitumor ability of DT-13, a saponin monomer isolated from the roots of the Dwarf lilyturf tuber, is discussed in this study. The results showed that DT-13 inhibited the proliferation, adhesion and invasion of MDA-MB-435 cells. DT-13 decreased the excretion and expression of MMP-2/9. Furthermore, DT-13 inhibited the phosphorylation of p38 in MDA-MB-435 cells. In conclusion, the results suggest that DT-13 possesses anticancer and antimetastatic properties by inhibiting the invasion of cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyuan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Complex Prescription of TCM, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, PR China
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Tao J, Wang H, Chen J, Xu H, Li S. Effects of Saponin Monomer 13 of Dwarf Lilyturf Tuber on L-Type Calcium Currents in Adult Rat Ventricular Myocytes. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CHINESE MEDICINE 2012; 33:797-806. [PMID: 16265992 DOI: 10.1142/s0192415x05003417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The saponin monomer 13 of dwarf lilyturf tuber (DT-13), one of the saponin monomers of dwarf lilyturf tuber, has been found to have potent cardioprotective effects. In order to investigate the effect of DT-13 on L-type calcium currents ( I Ca,L ), exploring the mechanisms of DT-13's cardioprotective effects, we directly measured the I Ca,L in the adult rat cardiac myocytes exposed to DT-13 using standard whole-cell patch-clamp recording technique. Our results showed that DT-13 exerted inhibitory effects on the I Ca,L of the single adult rat cardiac myocytes. The current density was reduced by about 38% after exposure of the cells to DT-13 (0.1 μM) for 10 minutes, from the control value of 7.46 ± 1.31 pA/pF to 4.25 ± 0.35 pA/pF ( n = 6, p < 0.05). This I Ca,L -inhibiting action of DT-13 was concentration-dependent. DT-13 up-shifted the current-voltage (I-V) curve, but did not significantly affect the half activation potential (V0.5). V0.5 was from -11.8 ± 0.9 mV in the control to -12.6 ± 1.9 mV in the presence of DT-13 at 0.1 μmol/L. DT-13 at 0.1 μM did not markedly affect the activation of I Ca,L , but shifted the inactivation curve of I Ca,L to the left. In combination with previous reports, these results suggest that there might be a close relationship between the cardioprotective effects of dwarf lilyturf tuber and the inhibitory effects of DT-13 on L-type calcium currents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Tao
- Department of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
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KIM BONGGWAN, CHOI SINYANG, SUH HYUNGJOO, PARK HYUNJIN. BITTERNESS REDUCTION AND ENZYMATIC TRANSFORMATION OF GINSENOSIDES FROM KOREAN RED GINSENG (PANAX GINSENG) EXTRACT. J Food Biochem 2011. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-4514.2010.00450.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Sun L, Lin S, Zhao R, Yu B, Yuan S, Zhang L. The saponin monomer of dwarf lilyturf tuber, DT-13, reduces human breast cancer cell adhesion and migration during hypoxia via regulation of tissue factor. Biol Pharm Bull 2010; 33:1192-8. [PMID: 20606312 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.33.1192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Adhesion and migration of tumor cells are crucial steps in tumor invasion and metastasis. In the present study, we investigated the effects of saponin monomer 13 of dwarf lilyturf tuber (DT-13) on metastasis of human breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-435) during hypoxia. The effects and molecular mechanisms of DT-13 on MDA-MB-435 cells metastatic phenotype in vitro and in vivo were evaluated by RNA interference; quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and Western blot assays. DT-13 had no significant effects on cell adhesion and migration under normoxia conditions. Under hypoxic conditions, MDA-MB-435 adhesion to vitronectin was inhibited by about 43.5% or 60.8% after exposure of the cells to DT-13 at 1 microM or 10 microM, respectively. DT-13 decreased the migratory response by hypoxia at 1 or 10 microM, and inhibition ratios were 20% and 30%, respectively. DT-13 inhibited hypoxia-induced expression of alphavbeta3 integrin, tissue factor (TF) and early growth response gene-1 (Egr-1) and decreased excretion of matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) of MDA-MB-435 cells under hypoxic conditions. After Egr-1 short interference RNA (siRNA) treatment, DT-13 could still inhibit the up-regulation of TF mRNA and protein levels and its pro-coagulant activity (PCA) under hypoxia. In nude mice, DT-13 decreased extravasation of MDA-MB-435 cells in the lung after tail vein injection. Our data suggest that DT-13 inhibits MDA-MB-435 cells metastasis during hypoxia via regulation of TF, and the effect of DT-13 on TF is partly mediated by Egr-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Sun
- Jiangsu Center for Drug Screening, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, P. R. China
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Van Minh C, Dat NT, Dang NH, Nam NH, Ban NK, Van Tuyen N, Huong LM, Huong TT, Van Kiem P. Unusual 22S-spirostane Steroids from Dracaena cambodiana. Nat Prod Commun 2009. [DOI: 10.1177/1934578x0900400908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
From the methanol extract of Dracaena cambodiana roots two unusual 22S-spirostane steroids (1β,3β,14α,20R,22S,25R)-spirost-5-ene-1,3, 14-triol (1) and (1β,3β,14α,15α,20R,22S,25R)-spirost-5-ene-tetrol (2) have been isolated, together with a known 22R-spirostane compound, namogenin B (3). Their structures were elucidated by spectroscopic and spectrometric methods, including HRMS and extensive 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy. Compound 1 showed significant antimicrobial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Fusarium oxysporum, with MIC values of 45.0, 25.0 and 50.0 μg/mL, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chau Van Minh
- Institute of Natural Products Chemistry, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet, Caugiay, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Nguyen Tien Dat
- Institute of Natural Products Chemistry, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet, Caugiay, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Nguyen Hai Dang
- Institute of Natural Products Chemistry, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet, Caugiay, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Nguyen Hoai Nam
- Institute of Natural Products Chemistry, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet, Caugiay, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Ninh Khac Ban
- Institute of Ecology and Biological Resources, VAST, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | | | - Le Mai Huong
- Institute of Natural Products Chemistry, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet, Caugiay, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Tran Thu Huong
- Hanoi University of Technology, 1 Dai Co Viet, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Phan Van Kiem
- Institute of Natural Products Chemistry, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet, Caugiay, Hanoi, Vietnam
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Enzymatic transformation of ginsenoside Rg3 to Rh2 using newly isolated Fusarium proliferatum ECU2042. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molcatb.2005.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Tao J, Wang H, Zhou H, Li S. The saponin monomer of dwarf lilyturf tuber, DT-13, reduces L-type calcium currents during hypoxia in adult rat ventricular myocytes. Life Sci 2005; 77:3021-30. [PMID: 15978637 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2005.01.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2004] [Accepted: 01/29/2005] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The saponin monomer 13 of dwarf lilyturf tuber (DT-13), one of the saponin monomers of dwarf lilyturf tuber, has been found to have potent cardioprotective effects. In order to investigate the effects of DT-13 on L-type calcium currents (I(Ca,L)), exploring the mechanisms of DT-13's cardioprotective effects in the condition of pathophysiology, we directly measured the I(Ca,L) during hypoxia in the adult rat cardiac myocytes exposed to DT-13 using standard whole-cell patch-clamp recording technique. Our previous results showed that DT-13 exerted decreasing effects on the I(Ca,L) of the single adult rat cardiac myocytes. In the condition of hypoxia, the current density was inhibited by about 29% after exposure of the cells to DT-13 (0.1 micromol L(-1)) for 10 min, from 6.96+/-1.05 pA/pF to 4.38+/-0.35 pA/pF (n=5, P<0.05). This I(Ca,L)-inhibiting action of DT-13 was concentration-dependent and showed no frequency-dependence. DT-13 up-shifted the current-voltage (I-V) curve. Steady-state activation of I(Ca,L) was not affected markedly, and the half activation potential (V(0.5)) in the presence of DT-13 (0.1 micromol L(-1)) was also not significantly different. DT-13 at 0.1 micromol L(-1) markedly accelerated the voltage-dependent steady-state inactivation of calcium current and shifted the steady-state inactivation curve of I(Ca,L) to the left. In combination with previous reports, these results suggest that there might be a close relationship between the cardioprotective effects of DT-13 and L-type calcium channels in the condition of hypoxia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Tao
- Department of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, Hanzhong Road 140, Nanjing 210029, PR China
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Rao AV, Gurfinkel DM. The bioactivity of saponins: triterpenoid and steroidal glycosides. DRUG METABOLISM AND DRUG INTERACTIONS 2001; 17:211-35. [PMID: 11201296 DOI: 10.1515/dmdi.2000.17.1-4.211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Triterpenoid and steroidal glycosides, referred to collectively as saponins, are bioactive compounds present naturally in many plants. They have considerable potential as pharmaceutical and/or nutraceutical agents in natural or synthetic form. Saponins, from a variety of sources, have been shown to have hypocholesterolemic, anti-coagulant, anticarcinogenic, hepatoprotective, hypoglycemic, immunomodulatory, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant activity. This paper reviews saponin research of the last decade, focussing on developments in understanding their mechanism of action and structure-activity relationships. Virtually all of this work has used animal and in vitro models. To date there are very few human data.
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Affiliation(s)
- A V Rao
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Toronto, ON, Canada.
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Agrawal PK, Bunsawansong P, Morris GA. Dependence of the 1H NMR chemical shifts of ring F resonances on the orientation of the 27-methyl group of spirostane-type steroidal sapogenins. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 1998; 47:255-257. [PMID: 9431674 DOI: 10.1016/s0031-9422(97)00481-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
A relationship between the 1H NMR chemical shifts of the ring F resonances and orientation of the H3-27 group has been derived for the establishment of 25R- and 25S-stereochemistry in spirostane type of steroidal sapogenins.
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Affiliation(s)
- P K Agrawal
- Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, India
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