Enzymatic nanomotors with chemotaxis for product-based cancer therapy

The development of an intelligent nanomotor system holds great promise for enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of antitumor therapy. Leveraging the overexpressed substances in the tumor microenvironment as propellants and chemotactic factors for enzyme-powered nanomotors represents a versatile and compelling approach. Herein, a plasma amine oxidase (PAO)-based chemotactic nanomotor system has been successfully developed, with the ability to enzymatically produce toxic acrolein and H2O2 from the upregulated polyamines (PAs) in the tumor microenvironment for active tumor therapy. Zwitterionic polymeric nanoparticles with superior biocompatibility are synthesized, followed by PAO modification via electrostatic interactions. As expected, the resulting nanomotor system exhibits positive chemotaxis toward PAs concentration gradient. Upon reaching the tumor region, our nanomotors, actuated by the tumor microenvironmental PAs, effectively enhance diffusion and enable deep penetration into the tumor site. This leads to the induction of tumor apoptosis and simultaneous inhibition of tumor invasion and migration by decomposing PAs into toxic products. By smartly utilizing the consumption of these local chemotactic factors and their enzymatic products, our nanomotor system provides a versatile and intelligent platform for active and enhanced tumor therapy.

Trifluoromethylcinnamanilides - Effective dual inhibitors of Mycobacterium smegmatis and Plasmodium falciparum

A series of eighteen new 2-trifluoromethylcinnamanilides (1a-r) were synthesized by microwave synthesis and investigated for their antimycobacterial and antimalarial activities, along with the complementary (2E)-3-[3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-N-arylprop-2-enanilides (2a-r) and (2E)-3-[4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-N-arylprop-2-enanilides (3a-r) prepared earlier. All the compounds were evaluated in vitro against Mycobacterium smegmatis ATCC 700084 and a chloroquine-sensitive strain of Plasmodium falciparum 3D7/MRA-102. The most active compounds against M. smegmatis (MIC values in the range of 1.17-11.1 µM, more effective than rifampicin) were anilides substituted by 3,5-CF3 (1q, 2q, 3q), 4-OCF3 (1k), and 4-CF3 (1j, 2j). The most effective agents against P. falciparum (IC50 values in the range of 0.32-4.5 µM, comparable to chloroquine) were anilides substituted by 3,5-CF3 (1q, 2q, 3q), 2-Br-4-OCF3 (1r), 4-CF3 (1j, 3j), 4-F (2d), 4-Cl (2g), 2-Cl (1e, 2e). A preliminary in vitro cytotoxicity screening was assessed using human leukemic cell lines and human dermal fibroblasts, revealing the toxic effect of 3,5-CF3 substituted anilides. On the other hand, the other investigated agents showed insignificant cytotoxic effects. Stability assays using rat liver microsomes demonstrated that compounds 1r (R = 2-Br-4-OCF3) and 1q (R = 3,5-CF3) are neither metabolized nor affect cytochrome P450 metabolizing capacity in vitro. Furthermore, complex in silico studies were performed - a combined approach (docking/MD simulations/QTAIM calculations) helped to define the molecular interactions that were applied during the binding of active agents and the subsequent inhibition of their molecular targets - InhA (activity against M. smegmatis) and arginase (activity against P. falciparum). In conclusion, promising active agents with dual antimycobacterial and antimalarial effects were identified.

Methyl vinyl ketone and its analogs covalently modify PI3K and alter physiological functions by inhibiting PI3K signaling

Reactive carbonyl species (RCS), which are abundant in the environment and are produced in vivo under stress, covalently bind to nucleophilic residues such as Cys in proteins. Disruption of protein function by RCS exposure is predicted to play a role in the development of various diseases such as cancer and metabolic disorders, but most studies on RCS have been limited to simple cytotoxicity validation, leaving their target proteins and resulting physiological changes unknown. In this study, we focused on methyl vinyl ketone (MVK), which is one of the main RCS found in cigarette smoke and exhaust gas. We found that MVK suppressed PI3K-Akt signaling, which regulates processes involved in cellular homeostasis, including cell proliferation, autophagy, and glucose metabolism. Interestingly, MVK inhibits the interaction between the epidermal growth factor receptor and PI3K. Cys656 in the SH2 domain of the PI3K p85 subunit, which is the covalently binding site of MVK, is important for this interaction. Suppression of PI3K-Akt signaling by MVK reversed epidermal growth factor-induced negative regulation of autophagy and attenuated glucose uptake. Furthermore, we analyzed the effects of the 23 RCS compounds with structures similar to MVK and showed that their analogs also suppressed PI3K-Akt signaling in a manner that correlated with their similarities to MVK. Our study demonstrates the mechanism of MVK and its analogs in suppressing PI3K-Akt signaling and modulating physiological functions, providing a model for future studies analyzing environmental reactive species.

Cigarette Smoke-Induced Reactive Oxygen Species Formation: A Concise Review

Smoking is recognized as a significant risk factor for numerous disorders, including cardiovascular diseases, respiratory conditions, and various forms of cancer. While the exact pathogenic mechanisms continue to be explored, the induction of oxidative stress via the production of excess reactive oxygen species (ROS) is widely accepted as a primary molecular event that predisposes individuals to these smoking-related ailments. This review focused on how cigarette smoke (CS) promotes ROS formation rather than the pathophysiological repercussions of ROS and oxidative stress. A comprehensive analysis of existing studies revealed the following key ways through which CS imposes ROS burden on biological systems: (1) ROS, as well as radicals, are intrinsically present in CS, (2) CS constituents generate ROS through chemical reactions with biomolecules, (3) CS stimulates cellular ROS sources to enhance production, and (4) CS disrupts the antioxidant system, aggravating the ROS generation and its functions. While the evidence supporting these mechanisms is chiefly based on in vitro and animal studies, the direct clinical relevance remains to be fully elucidated. Nevertheless, this understanding is fundamental for deciphering molecular events leading to oxidative stress and for developing intervention strategies to counter CS-induced oxidative stress.

DNA Damage and Oxidative Stress of Tobacco Smoke Condensate in Human Bladder Epithelial Cells

Smoking is a major risk factor for bladder cancer (BC), with up to 50% of BC cases being attributed to smoking. There are 70 known carcinogens in tobacco smoke; however, the principal chemicals responsible for BC remain uncertain. The aromatic amines 4-aminobiphenyl (4-ABP) and 2-naphthylamine (2-NA) are implicated in BC pathogenesis of smokers on the basis of the elevated BC risk in factory workers exposed to these chemicals. However, 4-ABP and 2-NA only occur at several nanograms per cigarette and may be insufficient to induce BC. In contrast, other genotoxicants, including acrolein, occur at 1000-fold or higher levels in tobacco smoke. There is limited data on the toxicological effects of tobacco smoke in human bladder cells. We have assessed the cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, and DNA damage of tobacco smoke condensate (TSC) in human RT4 bladder cells. TSC was fractionated by liquid-liquid extraction into an acid-neutral fraction (NF), containing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), nitro-PAHs, phenols, and aldehydes, and a basic fraction (BF) containing aromatic amines, heterocyclic aromatic amines, and N-nitroso compounds. The TSC and NF induced a time- and concentration-dependent cytotoxicity associated with oxidative stress, lipid peroxide formation, glutathione (GSH) depletion, and apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP) site formation, while the BF showed weak effects. LC/MS-based metabolomic approaches showed that TSC and NF altered GSH biosynthesis pathways and induced more than 40 GSH conjugates. GSH conjugates of several hydroquinones were among the most abundant conjugates. RT4 cell treatment with synthetic hydroquinones and cresol mixtures at levels present in tobacco smoke accounted for most of the TSC-induced cytotoxicity and the AP sites formed. GSH conjugates of acrolein, methyl vinyl ketone, and crotonaldehyde levels also increased owing to TSC-induced oxidative stress. Thus, TSC is a potent toxicant and DNA-damaging agent, inducing deleterious effects in human bladder cells at concentrations of <1% of a cigarette in cell culture media.

β-Caryophyllene Counteracts Chemoresistance Induced by Cigarette Smoke in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer MDA-MB-468 Cells

Exposure to cigarette smoke (CS) has been associated with an increased risk of fatal breast cancers and recurrence, along with chemoresistance and chemotherapy impairment. This strengthens the interest in chemopreventive agents to be exploited both in healthy and oncological subjects to prevent or repair CS damage. In the present study, we evaluated the chemopreventive properties of the natural sesquiterpene β-caryophyllene towards the damage induced by cigarette smoke condensate (CSC) in triple negative breast cancer MDA-MB-468 cells. Particularly, we assessed the ability of the sesquiterpene to interfere with the mechanisms exploited by CSC to promote cell survival and chemoresistance, including genomic instability, cell cycle progress, autophagy/apoptosis, cell migration and related pathways. β-Caryophyllene was found to be able to increase the CSC-induced death of MDA-MB-468 cells, likely triggering oxidative stress, cell cycle arrest and apoptosis; moreover, it hindered cell recovery, autophagy activation and cell migration; at last, a marked inhibition of the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) activation was highlighted: this could represent a key mechanism of the chemoprevention by β-caryophyllene. Although further studies are required to confirm the in vivo efficacy of β-caryophyllene, the present results suggest a novel strategy to reduce the harmful effect of smoke in cancer patients and to improve the survival expectations in breast cancer women.

Metabolic Activation of Aegeline Mediated by CYP2C19

1. Aegeline (AGL) is a natural alkaloidal amide mainly isolated from the leaves and fruits of tropical plant Aegle marmelos, with multiple pharmacological activities.2. As one component of several dietary supplements, AGL caused a series of acute and chronic liver injuries. Nevertheless, the mechanisms of AGL-induced hepatotoxicity remain unclear. This study was conducted to identify reactive metabolite(s), to determine related metabolic pathways, and define the possible association of the bioactivation with AGL cytotoxicity.3. A demethylation metabolite (M1) and a GSH conjugate (M2) were detected in rat liver microsomal incubations containing AGL and GSH. The two metabolites were both found in bile of rats and rat primary hepatocytes after AGL administration.4. Recombinant P450 enzyme incubations showed that CYP2C19 was the principal enzyme catalyzing this metabolic activation.5. Ticlopidine, a selective inhibitor of CYP2C19, decreased the formation of M1 and M2 in hepatocytes and attenuated the susceptibility of hepatocytes to the cytotoxicity of AGL. The results suggest that AGL was metabolized to a p-quinone methide intermediate which could in part participate in AGL-induced cytotoxicity.

Cigarette smoke extract induces ferroptosis in vascular smooth muscle cells

Cigarette smoking is a major risk factor for aortic aneurysm and dissection; however, no causative link between smoking and these aortic disorders has been proven. In the present study, we investigated the mechanism by which cigarette smoke affects vascular wall cells and found that cigarette smoke extract (CSE) induced a novel form of regulated cell death termed ferroptosis in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). CSE markedly induced cell death in A7r5 cells and primary rat VSMCs, but not in endothelial cells, which was completely inhibited by specific ferroptosis inhibitors [ferrostatin-1 (Fer-1) and Liproxstatin-1] and an iron chelator (deferoxamine). CSE-induced VSMC death was partially inhibited by a GSH precursor (N-acetyl cysteine) and an NADPH oxidase inhibitor [diphenyleneiodonium chloride (DPI)], but not by inhibitors of pan-caspases (Z-VAD), caspase-1 (Z-YVAD), or necroptosis (necrostatin-1). CSE also upregulated IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2, MMP-9, and TIMP-1 (tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase)in A7r5 cells, which was inhibited by Fer-1. Furthermore, CSE induced the upregulation of Ptgs2 mRNA, lipid peroxidation, and intracellular GSH depletion, which are key features of ferroptosis. VSMC ferroptosis was induced by acrolein and methyl vinyl ketone, major constituents of CSE. Furthermore, CSE caused medial VSMC loss in ex vivo aortas. Electron microscopy analysis showed mitochondrial damage and fragmentation in medial VSMCs of CSE-treated aortas. All of these manifestations were partially restored by Fer-1. These findings demonstrate that ferroptosis is responsible for CSE-induced VSMC death and suggest that ferroptosis is a potential therapeutic target for preventing aortic aneurysm and dissection.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Cigarette smoke extract (CSE)-induced cell death in rat vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) was completely inhibited by specific ferroptosis inhibitors and an iron chelator. CSE also induced the upregulation of Ptgs2 mRNA, lipid peroxidation, and intracellular GSH depletion, which are key features of ferroptosis. CSE caused medial VSMC loss in ex vivo aortas. These findings demonstrate that ferroptosis is responsible for CSE-induced VSMC death.

Glutathione and cysteines suppress cytotoxicity of gas phase of cigarette smoke by direct reacting with unsaturated carbonyl compounds in the gas phase

Unsaturated carbonyl compounds, such as acrolein (ACR) and methyl vinyl ketone (MVK), are environmental pollutants, and are contained in smoke, automobile exhaust, and heated oil. We have previously reported that major cytotoxic factors in the gas phase of cigarette smoke are ACR and MVK. ACR and MVK induce cell damage by reactive oxygen species generation via protein kinase C and NADPH oxidases, and antioxidants, such as glutathione (GSH) and N-acetylcysteine (NAC), can effectively suppress their cytotoxic activities. In this study, we attempted to elucidate the molecular mechanism(s) for suppression of ACR- and MVK-induced cytotoxic activities by these antioxidants. GSH, NAC, L- and D-cysteines completely suppressed cell damage induced by gas phase extract of cigarette smoke. The results of HPLC and mass spectrometry showed that GSH and NAC directly reacted with ACR and MVK. Cysteines and cysteine derivatives suppressed ACR-induced GAPDH carbonylation, a representative protein for carbonylation. The current results suggest that GSH, NAC, and cysteines directly reacted with ACR and MVK, and suppressed these unsaturated carbonyl compounds-induced cell damage by inhibition of protein carbonylation.

Acrolein, a commonly found environmental toxin, causes oocyte mitochondrial dysfunction and negatively affects embryo development

Recent studies have revealed that acrolein, a commonly found toxin and a potent metabolite of cyclophosphamide (CTX), can cause deterioration of mouse oocyte quality through a mechanism involving the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). We extend these studies to evaluate the effects of acrolein, in varying concentrations, on the oocyte mitochondrial membrane and oocyte apoptosis and its effect on embryo development in vitro. Metaphase II mouse oocytes were exposed for 45 minutes to acrolein and CTX (10 & 25 µM) and mitochondrial dysfunction, a major source of ROS overproduction, was evaluated by the 5,5,6,6-tetrachloro-1,1,3,3-tetraethyl-β-benzimidazolylcarbocyanine iodide (JC-10) mitochondrial membrane potential assay. Treatment with acrolein led to mitochondrial membrane damage as well as induction of apoptosis compared to untreated control (p < 0.05). Similar results were obtained when oocytes were exposed to CTX (p < .05). Subsequently, the effect of acrolein exposure was evaluated by observing in vitro development of embryos after exposure. Acrolein treatment caused higher proportions of arrested and poor-quality embryos, evidenced by irregular cleavage, severe asymmetry of blastomeres, presence of large percentage of anuclear fragments, and dark granularity of the cytoplasm. Development at various durations in culture revealed that optimal embryo growth was significantly inhibited in a dose dependent manner, when compared to control (p < .05). A global model that links acrolein accumulation, generation of ROS, and mitochondrial dysfunction and their effect on oocyte and embryo quality is discussed further. Collectively, understanding the mechanism by which CTX and acrolein impact fertility is helpful in finding potential alternative or supplemental treatment options.

Detoxification Mechanism of α,β-Unsaturated Carbonyl Compounds in Cigarette Smoke Observed in Sheep Erythrocytes

Highly reactive α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds, such as acrolein (ACR), crotonaldehyde (CA) and methyl vinyl ketone (MVK), are environmental pollutants present in high concentrations in cigarette smoke. We have previously found that these carbonyl compounds in cigarette smoke extract (CSE) react with intracellular glutathione (GSH) to produce the corresponding GSH-ACR, GSH-CA and GSH-MVK adducts via Michael addition reaction. These adducts are then further reduced to the corresponding alcohol forms by intracellular aldo-keto reductases in highly metastatic mouse melanoma (B16-BL6) cells and then excreted into the extracellular fluid. This time, we conducted a similar study using sheep erythrocytes and found analogous changes in the sheep erythrocytes after exposure to CSE as those with B16-BL6 cells. This indicates similarity of the detoxification pathways of the α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds in sheep blood cells and B16-BL6 cells. Also, we found that the GSH-MVK adduct was reduced by aldose reductase in a cell-free solution to generate its alcohol form, and its reduction reaction was completely suppressed by pretreatment with epalrestat, an aldose reductase inhibitor, a member of the aldo-keto reductase family. In the presence of sheep blood cells, however, reduction of the GSH-MVK adduct was partially inhibited by epalrestat. This revealed that some member of the aldo-keto reductase superfamily other than aldose reductase is involved in reduction of the GSH-MVK adduct in sheep blood. These results suggest that blood cells, mainly erythrocytes are involved in reducing the inhalation toxicity of cigarette smoke via an aldo-keto reductase pathway other than that of aldose reductase.

Crotonaldehyde exposure in U.S. tobacco smokers and nonsmokers: NHANES 2005-2006 and 2011-2012

INTRODUCTION

Crotonaldehyde is an α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compound that is a potent eye, respiratory, and skin irritant. Crotonaldehyde is a major constituent of tobacco smoke and its exposure can be quantified using its urinary metabolite N-acetyl-S-(3-hydroxypropyl-1-methyl)-L-cysteine (HPMM). A large-scale biomonitoring study is needed to determine HPMM levels, as a measure of crotonaldehyde exposure, in the general U.S.

POPULATION

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Urine samples were obtained as part of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2005-2006 and 2011-2012 from participants who were at least six-years-old (N = 4692). Samples were analyzed for HPMM using ultra performance liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry. Exclusive tobacco smokers were distinguished from non- tobacco users through a combination of self-reporting and serum cotinine data.

RESULTS

Detection rate of HPMM among eligible samples was 99.9%. Sample-weighted, median urinary HPMM levels for smokers and non-users were 1.61 and 0.313 mg/g creatinine, respectively. Multivariable regression analysis among smokers showed that HPMM was positively associated with serum cotinine, after controlling for survey year, urinary creatinine, age, sex, race, poverty level, body mass index, pre-exam fasting time, and food intake. Other significant predictors of urinary HPMM include sex (female > male), age (children > non-user adults), race (non-Hispanic Blacks < non-Hispanic Whites).

CONCLUSIONS

This study characterizes U.S. population exposure to crotonaldehyde and confirms that tobacco smoke is a major exposure source. Urinary HPMM levels were significantly higher among exclusive combusted tobacco users compared to non-users, and serum cotinine and cigarettes per day were significant predictors of increased urinary HPMM. This study also found that sex, age, ethnicity, pre-exam fasting time, and fruit consumption are related to urinary HPMM levels.

Cyclophosphamide and acrolein induced oxidative stress leading to deterioration of metaphase II mouse oocyte quality

Cyclophosphamide (CTX) is a chemotherapeutic agent widely used to treat ovarian, breast, and hematological cancers as well as autoimmune disorders. Such chemotherapy is associated with reproductive failure and premature ovarian insufficiency. The mechanism by which CTX and/or its main metabolite, acrolein, affect female fertility remains unclear, but it is thought to be caused by an overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Here, we investigated the effect of CTX on metaphase II mouse oocytes obtained from treated animals (120mg/kg, 24h of single treatment), and oocytes directly exposed to increasing concentrations of CTX and acrolein (n=480; 0, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100μM) with and without cumulus cells (CCs) for 45min which correlates to the time of maximum peak plasma concentrations after administration. Oocytes were fixed and subjected to indirect immunofluorescence and were scored based on microtubule spindle structure (MT) and chromosomal alignment (CH). Generation of ROS was evaluated using the Cellular Reactive Oxygen Species Detection Assay Kit. Deterioration of oocyte quality was noted when oocytes were obtained from CTX treated mice along with CTX and acrolein treated oocytes in a dose-dependent manner as shown by an increase in poor scores. Acrolein had an impact at a significantly lower level as compared to CTX, plateau at 10μM versus 50μM, respectively. These variation is are associated with the higher amount of ROS generated with acrolein exposure as compared to CTX (p<0.05). Utilization of antioxidant therapy and acrolein scavengers may mitigate the damaging effects of these compounds and help women undergoing such treatment.

Mass Spectrometric Approaches to the Identification of Potential Ingredients in Cigarette Smoke Causing Cytotoxicity

Cigarette smoke contains many harmful chemicals that contribute to the pathogenesis of smoking-related diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cancer, and cardiovascular disease. Many studies have been done to identify cytotoxic chemicals in cigarette smoke and elucidate the onset of the above-mentioned diseases caused by smoking. However, definitive mechanisms for cigarette smoke toxicity remain unknown. As candidates for cytotoxic chemicals, we have recently found methyl vinyl ketone (MVK) and acetic anhydride in nicotine/tar-free cigarette smoke extract (CSE) using L-tyrosine (Tyr), an amino acid with highly reactive hydroxyl group. The presence of MVK and acetic anhydride in CSE was confirmed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS). We also found new reaction products formed in B16-BL6 mouse melanoma (B16-BL6) cells treated with CSE using LC/MS. These were identified as glutathione (GSH) conjugates of α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds, MVK, crotonaldehyde (CA), and acrolein (ACR), by the mass value and product ion spectra of these new products. ACR and MVK are type-2 alkenes, which are well known as electron acceptors and form Michael-type adducts to nucleophilic side chain of amino acids on peptides. These α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds may have a key role in CSE-induced cell death.

Decrease in acrolein toxicity based on the decline of polyamine oxidases

We have shown recently that acrolein is strongly involved in cell damage during brain infarction and chronic renal failure. To study the mechanism of acrolein detoxification, we tried to isolate Neuro2a cells with reduced sensitivity to acrolein toxicity (Neuro2a-ATD cells). In one cell line, Neuro2a-ATD1, the level of glutathione (GSH) was increased. We recently isolated a second cell line, Neuro2a-ATD2, and found that acrolein-producing enzymes [polyamine oxidases (PAO); i.e. acetylpolyamine oxidase (AcPAO), and spermine oxidase (SMO)] are reduced in this cell line due to changes at the level of transcription. In the Neuro2a-ATD2 cells, the IC50 of acrolein increased from 4.2 to 6.8μM, and the levels of FosB and C/EBPβ - transcription factors involved in the transcription of AcPAO and SMO genes - were reduced. Transfection of siRNAs for FosB and C/EBPβ reduced the levels of AcPAO and SMO, respectively. In addition, the synthesis of FosB and AcPAO was also decreased by siRNA for C/EBPβ, because C/EBPβ is one of the transcription factors for the FosB gene. It was also found that transfection of siRNA for C/EBPβ decreased SMO promoter activity in Neuro2a cells but not in ATD2 cells confirming that a decrease in C/EBPβ is involved in the reduced SMO activity in Neuro2a-ATD2 cells. Furthermore, transfection of the cDNA for AcPAO or SMO into Neuro2a cells increased the toxicity of acrolein. These results suggest that acrolein is mainly produced from polyamines by PAO.