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Yaglova NV, Obernikhin SS, Nazimova SV, Tsomartova DA, Timokhina EP, Yaglov VV, Tsomartova ES, Chereshneva EV, Ivanova MY, Lomanovskaya TA. Postnatal Exposure to the Endocrine Disruptor Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane Affects Adrenomedullary Chromaffin Cell Physiology and Alters the Balance of Mechanisms Underlying Cell Renewal. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:1494. [PMID: 38338771 PMCID: PMC10855250 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25031494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) is a wide-spread systemic pollutant with endocrine disrupting properties. Prenatal exposure to low doses of DDT has been shown to affect adrenal medulla growth and function. The role of postnatal exposure to DDT in developmental disorders remains unclear. The aim of the present investigation is to assess growth parameters and the expression of factors mediating the function and renewal of chromaffin cells in the adult adrenal medulla of male Wistar rats exposed to the endocrine disruptor o,p'-DDT since birth until sexual maturation. The DDT-exposed rats exhibited normal growth of the adrenal medulla but significantly decreased tyrosine hydroxylase production by chromaffin cells during postnatal period. Unlike the control, the exposed rats showed enhanced proliferation and reduced expression of nuclear β-catenin, transcription factor Oct4, and ligand of Sonic hedgehog after termination of the adrenal growth period. No expression of pluripotency marker Sox2 and absence of Ascl 1-positive progenitors were found in the adrenal medulla during postnatal ontogeny of the exposed and the control rats. The present findings indicate that an increase in proliferative activity and inhibition of the formation of reserve for chromaffin cell renewal, two main mechanisms for cell maintenance in adrenal medulla, in the adult DDT-exposed rats may reflect a compensatory reaction aimed at the restoration of catecholamine production levels. The increased proliferation of chromaffin cells in adults suggests excessive growth of the adrenal medulla. Thus, postnatal exposure to DDT alters cell physiology and increases the risk of functional insufficiency and hyperplasia of the adrenal medulla.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nataliya V. Yaglova
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, A.P. Avtsyn Research Institute of Human Morphology of Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Petrovsky National Research Centre of Surgery”, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (S.S.O.); (S.V.N.); (D.A.T.); (E.P.T.); (V.V.Y.); (E.S.T.)
| | - Sergey S. Obernikhin
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, A.P. Avtsyn Research Institute of Human Morphology of Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Petrovsky National Research Centre of Surgery”, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (S.S.O.); (S.V.N.); (D.A.T.); (E.P.T.); (V.V.Y.); (E.S.T.)
| | - Svetlana V. Nazimova
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, A.P. Avtsyn Research Institute of Human Morphology of Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Petrovsky National Research Centre of Surgery”, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (S.S.O.); (S.V.N.); (D.A.T.); (E.P.T.); (V.V.Y.); (E.S.T.)
| | - Dibakhan A. Tsomartova
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, A.P. Avtsyn Research Institute of Human Morphology of Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Petrovsky National Research Centre of Surgery”, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (S.S.O.); (S.V.N.); (D.A.T.); (E.P.T.); (V.V.Y.); (E.S.T.)
- Department of Human Anatomy and Histology, Federal State Funded Educational Unlike the Control Institution of Higher Education, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119435 Moscow, Russia; (E.V.C.); (M.Y.I.); (T.A.L.)
| | - Ekaterina P. Timokhina
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, A.P. Avtsyn Research Institute of Human Morphology of Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Petrovsky National Research Centre of Surgery”, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (S.S.O.); (S.V.N.); (D.A.T.); (E.P.T.); (V.V.Y.); (E.S.T.)
| | - Valentin V. Yaglov
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, A.P. Avtsyn Research Institute of Human Morphology of Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Petrovsky National Research Centre of Surgery”, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (S.S.O.); (S.V.N.); (D.A.T.); (E.P.T.); (V.V.Y.); (E.S.T.)
| | - Elina S. Tsomartova
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, A.P. Avtsyn Research Institute of Human Morphology of Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Petrovsky National Research Centre of Surgery”, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (S.S.O.); (S.V.N.); (D.A.T.); (E.P.T.); (V.V.Y.); (E.S.T.)
- Department of Human Anatomy and Histology, Federal State Funded Educational Unlike the Control Institution of Higher Education, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119435 Moscow, Russia; (E.V.C.); (M.Y.I.); (T.A.L.)
| | - Elizaveta V. Chereshneva
- Department of Human Anatomy and Histology, Federal State Funded Educational Unlike the Control Institution of Higher Education, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119435 Moscow, Russia; (E.V.C.); (M.Y.I.); (T.A.L.)
| | - Marina Y. Ivanova
- Department of Human Anatomy and Histology, Federal State Funded Educational Unlike the Control Institution of Higher Education, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119435 Moscow, Russia; (E.V.C.); (M.Y.I.); (T.A.L.)
| | - Tatiana A. Lomanovskaya
- Department of Human Anatomy and Histology, Federal State Funded Educational Unlike the Control Institution of Higher Education, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119435 Moscow, Russia; (E.V.C.); (M.Y.I.); (T.A.L.)
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Yaglova NV, Gagulaeva BB, Timokhina EP, Obernikhin SS, Nazimova SV, Yaglov VV. Features of Spleen Development in Newborn Rats Exposed to Endocrine Disrupter Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane during the Prenatal Period. Bull Exp Biol Med 2023; 176:111-114. [PMID: 38085400 DOI: 10.1007/s10517-023-05977-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
The development of the spleen in newborn male Wistar rats exposed to low-dose endocrine disruptor dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane during the prenatal period was studied. Histological examination of the spleen revealed a more active development of periarterial lymphoid sheaths and lower granulocyte content in the organ. Cytofluorimetry showed a significantly lower content of B cells. Thus, low-dose exposure of the endocrine disruptor dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane on the developing organism during the prenatal period induced changes in spleen morphogenesis resulting in extensive development of lymphoid formations and a lower intensity of lymphocyte and granulocyte differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- N V Yaglova
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, A. P. Avtsyn Research Institute of Human Morphology, A. P. Petrovsky National Research Center of Surgery, Moscow, Russia.
| | - B B Gagulaeva
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, A. P. Avtsyn Research Institute of Human Morphology, A. P. Petrovsky National Research Center of Surgery, Moscow, Russia
| | - E P Timokhina
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, A. P. Avtsyn Research Institute of Human Morphology, A. P. Petrovsky National Research Center of Surgery, Moscow, Russia
| | - S S Obernikhin
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, A. P. Avtsyn Research Institute of Human Morphology, A. P. Petrovsky National Research Center of Surgery, Moscow, Russia
| | - S V Nazimova
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, A. P. Avtsyn Research Institute of Human Morphology, A. P. Petrovsky National Research Center of Surgery, Moscow, Russia
| | - V V Yaglov
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, A. P. Avtsyn Research Institute of Human Morphology, A. P. Petrovsky National Research Center of Surgery, Moscow, Russia
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Developmental Exposure to DDT Disrupts Transcriptional Regulation of Postnatal Growth and Cell Renewal of Adrenal Medulla. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24032774. [PMID: 36769098 PMCID: PMC9917778 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24032774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Revised: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) is the most widespread persistent pollutant with endocrine-disrupting properties. DDT has been shown to disrupt secretory and morphogenetic processes in the adrenal cortex. The present investigation aimed to evaluate transcriptional regulation of postnatal growth of the adrenal medulla and formation of the pools necessary for self-renewal of medullary cells in rats that developed under low-dose exposure to DDT. The study was performed using male Wistar rats exposed to low doses of o,p'-DDT during prenatal and postnatal development. Light microscopy and histomorphometry revealed diminished medulla growth in the DDT-exposed rats. Evaluation of Ki-67 expression in chromaffin cells found later activation of proliferation indicative of retarded growth of the adrenal medulla. All DDT-exposed rats exhibited a gradual decrease in tyrosine hydroxylase production by adrenal chromaffin cells. Immunohistochemical evaluation of nuclear β-catenin, transcription factor Oct4, and ligand of sonic hedgehog revealed increased expression of all factors after termination of growth in the control rats. The DDT-exposed rats demonstrated diminished increases in Oct4 and sonic hedgehog expression and lower levels of canonical Wnt signaling activation. Thus, developmental exposure to the endocrine disruptor o,p'-DDT alters the transcriptional regulation of morphogenetic processes in the adrenal medulla and evokes a slowdown in its growth and in the formation of a reserve pool of cells capable of dedifferentiation and proliferation that maintain cellular homeostasis in adult adrenals.
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Developmental Exposure to Endocrine Disrupter DDT Interferes with Age-Related Involution of Thymus. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23126678. [PMID: 35743120 PMCID: PMC9223823 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23126678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Revised: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The impact of endocrine-disrupting chemicals on the development and involution of the immune system is a possible reason for the increased incidence of disorders associated with inappropriate immune function. The thymus is a lymphoid and also an endocrine organ, and, accordingly, its development and functioning may be impaired by endocrine disruptors. The aim was to evaluate age-related thymus involution in mature rats exposed to the endocrine disruptor DDT during prenatal and postnatal ontogeny. Methodology included in vivo experiment on male Wistar rats exposed to low doses of DDT during prenatal and postnatal development and morphological assessment of thymic involution, including the immunohistochemical detection of proliferating thymocytes. The study was carried out at the early stage of involution. Results: DDT-exposed rats exhibited a normal anatomy, and the relative weight of the thymus was within the control ranges. Histological and immunohistochemical examinations revealed increased cellularity of the cortex and the medulla, higher content of lymphoblasts, and more intensive proliferation rate of thymocytes compared to the control. Evaluation of thymic epithelial cells revealed a higher rate of thymic corpuscles formation. Conclusion: The data obtained indicate that endocrine disrupter DDT disturbs postnatal development of the thymus. Low-dose exposure to DDT during ontogeny does not suppress growth rate but violates the developmental program of the thymus by slowing down the onset of age-related involution and maintaining high cell proliferation rate. It may result in excessive formation of thymus-dependent areas in peripheral lymphoid organs and altered immune response.
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Yaglova NV, Obernikhin SS, Nazimova SV, Timokhina EP, Tsomartova DA, Yaglov VV. Development and Function of the Adrenal Zona Reticularis in Rats Prenatally and Postnatally Exposed to the Endocrine Disruptor DDT. BIOL BULL+ 2022. [DOI: 10.1134/s1062359022030177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Mechanisms of Suppression of Epinephrine Production in Rats by Low-Dose Developmental Exposure to DDT. Bull Exp Biol Med 2022; 173:110-113. [PMID: 35618967 DOI: 10.1007/s10517-022-05503-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
We studied the mechanisms underlying decreased production of epinephrine by adrenal glands in rats developmentally exposed to endocrine disruptor DDT was performed on the basis of assessment of morphology, fine structure, and function of the adrenal medulla and medullary cells. It was found that the main mechanisms of disruptive action of DDT leading to a decrease in epinephrine secretion into systemic circulation are a decrease in the growth rate of the adrenal medulla, a decrease in the number of mitochondria in adrenal cells, especially under the outer cytoplasmic membrane, destructive changes in mitochondria, and a progressive decrease in the synthesis of tyrosine hydroxylase. The decrease in the number of mitochondria and suppression tyrosine hydroxylase synthesis in adrenal cells predominate during the pubertal period, while slowdown of the growth of the adrenal medulla and progressive decrease in the synthesis of tyrosine hydroxylase seem to be the most evident mechanisms after puberty.
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Yaglova NV, Obernikhin SS, Tsomartova DA, Yaglov VV, Nazimova SV, Tsomartova ES, Timokhina EP, Chereshneva EV, Ivanova MY, Lomanovskaya TA. Impact of Prenatal and Postnatal Exposure to Endocrine Disrupter DDT on Adrenal Medulla Function. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23094912. [PMID: 35563302 PMCID: PMC9101091 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23094912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Epinephrine is the most abundant catecholamine hormone, produced by the nervous system and adrenal glands. Endocrine disruption of epinephrine synthesis, secretion and signaling is less studied than steroid and thyroid hormones. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) is recognized as one of the most prominent environmental contaminants with a long half-life. It is a potent endocrine disrupter affecting sex steroid, mineralocorticoid, glucocorticoid and thyroid hormone production. Exposure to low doses of DDT is universal and begins in utero. Therefore, we studied adrenal medulla growth and function in male Wistar rats exposed to low doses of DDT during prenatal and postnatal development until puberty and adulthood, as well as rats exposed to DDT since the first day of postnatal development. All the exposed rats demonstrated lowered epinephrine blood levels, gradually reducing with age. DDT was found to inhibit the synthesis of tyrosine hydroxylase and affect the mitochondrial apparatus of epinephrine-producing cells during puberty and even after maturation. Low-dose exposure to DDT from birth resulted in more pronounced changes in adrenomedullary cells and a more profound decrease (up to 50%) in epinephrine secretion in adult rats. Prenatal onset of exposure demonstrated a mild effect on epinephrine-producing function (30% reduction), but was associated with lower rate of adrenal medulla growth during maturation and 25% smaller adrenal medullar size in adult rats. All subjects exposed to low doses of DDT failed to develop adaptive changes and restore proper epinephrine production. These results indicate a dysmorphogenetic effect of prenatal exposure and disruption of secretory function of adrenal chromaffin cells by postnatal exposure to DDT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nataliya V. Yaglova
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, Research Institute of Human Morphology, FSBSI, Petrovsky National Research Centre of Surgery, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (S.S.O.); (D.A.T.); (V.V.Y.); (S.V.N.); (E.S.T.); (E.P.T.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +7-499-120-04-79
| | - Sergey S. Obernikhin
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, Research Institute of Human Morphology, FSBSI, Petrovsky National Research Centre of Surgery, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (S.S.O.); (D.A.T.); (V.V.Y.); (S.V.N.); (E.S.T.); (E.P.T.)
| | - Dibakhan A. Tsomartova
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, Research Institute of Human Morphology, FSBSI, Petrovsky National Research Centre of Surgery, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (S.S.O.); (D.A.T.); (V.V.Y.); (S.V.N.); (E.S.T.); (E.P.T.)
- Department of Histology, Cytology, and Embryology, Federal State Funded Educational Institution of Higher Education I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119435 Moscow, Russia; (E.V.C.); (M.Y.I.); (T.A.L.)
| | - Valentin V. Yaglov
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, Research Institute of Human Morphology, FSBSI, Petrovsky National Research Centre of Surgery, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (S.S.O.); (D.A.T.); (V.V.Y.); (S.V.N.); (E.S.T.); (E.P.T.)
| | - Svetlana V. Nazimova
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, Research Institute of Human Morphology, FSBSI, Petrovsky National Research Centre of Surgery, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (S.S.O.); (D.A.T.); (V.V.Y.); (S.V.N.); (E.S.T.); (E.P.T.)
| | - Elina S. Tsomartova
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, Research Institute of Human Morphology, FSBSI, Petrovsky National Research Centre of Surgery, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (S.S.O.); (D.A.T.); (V.V.Y.); (S.V.N.); (E.S.T.); (E.P.T.)
- Department of Histology, Cytology, and Embryology, Federal State Funded Educational Institution of Higher Education I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119435 Moscow, Russia; (E.V.C.); (M.Y.I.); (T.A.L.)
| | - Ekaterina P. Timokhina
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, Research Institute of Human Morphology, FSBSI, Petrovsky National Research Centre of Surgery, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (S.S.O.); (D.A.T.); (V.V.Y.); (S.V.N.); (E.S.T.); (E.P.T.)
| | - Elizaveta V. Chereshneva
- Department of Histology, Cytology, and Embryology, Federal State Funded Educational Institution of Higher Education I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119435 Moscow, Russia; (E.V.C.); (M.Y.I.); (T.A.L.)
| | - Marina Y. Ivanova
- Department of Histology, Cytology, and Embryology, Federal State Funded Educational Institution of Higher Education I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119435 Moscow, Russia; (E.V.C.); (M.Y.I.); (T.A.L.)
| | - Tatiana A. Lomanovskaya
- Department of Histology, Cytology, and Embryology, Federal State Funded Educational Institution of Higher Education I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119435 Moscow, Russia; (E.V.C.); (M.Y.I.); (T.A.L.)
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Yaglova NV, Obernikhin SS, Tsomartova DA, Nazimova SV, Yaglov VV, Tsomartova ES, Chereshneva EV, Ivanova MY, Lomanovskaya TA. Impaired Morphogenesis and Function of Rat Adrenal Zona Glomerulosa by Developmental Low-Dose Exposure to DDT Is Associated with Altered Oct4 Expression. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:6324. [PMID: 34204839 PMCID: PMC8231536 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22126324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) is a persistent organic pollutant and one of the most widespread endocrine disrupting chemicals. The impact of low-dose exposure to DDT on the morphogenesis of the adrenal gland is still poorly understood. The development and function of zona glomerulosa in rats has been found to be associated with changes in the expression of the transcription factor Oct4 (Octamer 4), which is the most important player in cell pluripotency. The aim of the study was to investigate the morphogenesis and function of rat adrenal zona glomerulosa in rats exposed to low doses of DDT during prenatal and postnatal development and to determine the possible role of Oct4 in DDT-mediated structural and functional changes. The DDT-exposed rats demonstrated slower development and lower functional activity of the zona glomerulosa during the pubertal period associated with higher expression of Oct4. Further, accelerated growth and restoration of hormone production was associated with, firstly, a decrease in Oct4 expressing cells and secondly, the loss of the inverse relationship between basal aldosterone levels and the number of Oct4 expressing cells. Thus, the transcriptional factor Oct4 exhibited an altered pattern of expression in the DDT-exposed rats during postnatal development. The results of the study uncover a novel putative mechanism by which low doses of DDT disrupt the development of adrenal zona glomerulosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nataliya V. Yaglova
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Research Institute of Human Morphology”, 117418 Moscow, Russia; (S.S.O.); (D.A.T.); (S.V.N.); (V.V.Y.); (E.S.T.)
| | - Sergey S. Obernikhin
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Research Institute of Human Morphology”, 117418 Moscow, Russia; (S.S.O.); (D.A.T.); (S.V.N.); (V.V.Y.); (E.S.T.)
| | - Dibakhan A. Tsomartova
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Research Institute of Human Morphology”, 117418 Moscow, Russia; (S.S.O.); (D.A.T.); (S.V.N.); (V.V.Y.); (E.S.T.)
- Department of Histology, Cytology, and Embryology, Federal State Funded Educational Institution of Higher Education I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119435 Moscow, Russia; (E.V.C.); (M.Y.I.); (T.A.L.)
| | - Svetlana V. Nazimova
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Research Institute of Human Morphology”, 117418 Moscow, Russia; (S.S.O.); (D.A.T.); (S.V.N.); (V.V.Y.); (E.S.T.)
| | - Valentin V. Yaglov
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Research Institute of Human Morphology”, 117418 Moscow, Russia; (S.S.O.); (D.A.T.); (S.V.N.); (V.V.Y.); (E.S.T.)
| | - Elina S. Tsomartova
- Laboratory of Endocrine System Development, Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Research Institute of Human Morphology”, 117418 Moscow, Russia; (S.S.O.); (D.A.T.); (S.V.N.); (V.V.Y.); (E.S.T.)
- Department of Histology, Cytology, and Embryology, Federal State Funded Educational Institution of Higher Education I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119435 Moscow, Russia; (E.V.C.); (M.Y.I.); (T.A.L.)
| | - Elizaveta V. Chereshneva
- Department of Histology, Cytology, and Embryology, Federal State Funded Educational Institution of Higher Education I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119435 Moscow, Russia; (E.V.C.); (M.Y.I.); (T.A.L.)
| | - Marina Y. Ivanova
- Department of Histology, Cytology, and Embryology, Federal State Funded Educational Institution of Higher Education I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119435 Moscow, Russia; (E.V.C.); (M.Y.I.); (T.A.L.)
| | - Tatiana A. Lomanovskaya
- Department of Histology, Cytology, and Embryology, Federal State Funded Educational Institution of Higher Education I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119435 Moscow, Russia; (E.V.C.); (M.Y.I.); (T.A.L.)
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Ultrastructural Mechanisms of Impaired Aldosterone Synthesis in Rats Exposed to DDT during Prenatal and Postnatal Development. Bull Exp Biol Med 2020; 170:101-105. [PMID: 33231799 DOI: 10.1007/s10517-020-05013-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The study is aimed at elucidation of ultrastructural mechanisms underlying impaired aldosterone synthesis by glomerulosa cells in Wistar rats exposed to low doses of endocrine disrupter DDT during prenatal and postnatal development. Analysis of rat zona glomerulosa histology and function during the pubertal and postpubertal periods showed that exposure to endocrine disrupter DDT disturbs its development and reduced the production of aldosterone. Electron microscopy showed that changes in the aldosterone synthesis are related to impaired reorganization of the mitochondrial apparatus, one of the leading factors in the regulation of steroidogenesis, in glomerulosa cells in DDT-exposed rats during puberty.
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Kamiya Y, Otsuka S, Miura T, Yoshizawa M, Nakano A, Iwasaki M, Kobayashi Y, Shimizu M, Kitajima M, Shono F, Funatsu K, Yamazaki H. Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Models Predicting Renal and Hepatic Concentrations of Industrial Chemicals after Virtual Oral Doses in Rats. Chem Res Toxicol 2020; 33:1736-1751. [PMID: 32500706 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.0c00009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Recently developed high-throughput in vitro assays in combination with computational models could provide alternatives to animal testing. The purpose of the present study was to model the plasma, hepatic, and renal pharmacokinetics of approximately 150 structurally varied types of drugs, food components, and industrial chemicals after virtual external oral dosing in rats and to determine the relationship between the simulated internal concentrations in tissue/plasma and their lowest-observed-effect levels. The model parameters were based on rat plasma data from the literature and empirically determined pharmacokinetics measured after oral administrations to rats carried out to evaluate hepatotoxic or nephrotic potentials. To ensure that the analyzed substances exhibited a broad diversity of chemical structures, their structure-based location in the chemical space underwent projection onto a two-dimensional plane, as reported previously, using generative topographic mapping. A high-throughput in silico one-compartment model and a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model consisting of chemical receptor (gut), metabolizing (liver), central (main), and excreting (kidney) compartments were developed in parallel. For 159 disparate chemicals, the maximum plasma concentrations and the areas under the concentration-time curves obtained by one-compartment models and modified simple PBPK models were closely correlated. However, there were differences between the PBPK modeled and empirically obtained hepatic/renal concentrations and plasma maximal concentrations/areas under the concentration-time curves of the 159 chemicals. For a few compounds, the lowest-observed-effect levels were available for hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity in the Hazard Evaluation Support System Integrated Platform in Japan. The areas under the renal or hepatic concentration-time curves estimated using PBPK modeling were inversely associated with these lowest-observed-effect levels. Using PBPK forward dosimetry could provide the plasma/tissue concentrations of drugs and chemicals after oral dosing, thereby facilitating estimates of nephrotoxic or hepatotoxic potential as a part of the risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Kamiya
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Shohei Otsuka
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Tomonori Miura
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Manae Yoshizawa
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Ayane Nakano
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Miyu Iwasaki
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Yui Kobayashi
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Makiko Shimizu
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Masato Kitajima
- Fujitsu Kyusyu Systems, Higashi-hie, Hakata-ku, Fukuoka 812-0007, Japan
| | - Fumiaki Shono
- Department of Chemical System Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
| | - Kimito Funatsu
- Department of Chemical System Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Yamazaki
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
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11
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Yamazaki H, Kamiya Y. Extrapolation of Hepatic Concentrations of Industrial Chemicals Using Pharmacokinetic Models to Predict Hepatotoxicity. Toxicol Res 2019; 35:295-301. [PMID: 31636840 PMCID: PMC6791659 DOI: 10.5487/tr.2019.35.4.295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Revised: 08/12/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In this review, we describe the absorption rates (Caco-2 cell permeability) and hepatic/plasma pharmacokinetics of 53 diverse chemicals estimated by modeling virtual oral administration in rats. To ensure that a broad range of chemical structures is present among the selected substances, the properties described by 196 chemical descriptors in a chemoinformatics tool were calculated for 50,000 randomly selected molecules in the original chemical space. To allow visualization, the resulting chemical space was projected onto a two-dimensional plane using generative topographic mapping. The calculated absorbance rates of the chemicals based on cell permeability studies were found to be inversely correlated to the no-observed-effect levels for hepatoxicity after oral administration, as obtained from the Hazard Evaluation Support System Integrated Platform in Japan (r = -0.88, p < 0.01, n = 27). The maximum plasma concentrations and the areas under the concentration-time curves (AUC) of a varied selection of chemicals were estimated using two different methods: simple one-compartment models (i.e., high-throughput toxicokinetic models) and simplified physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling consisting of chemical receptor (gut), metabolizing (liver), and central (main) compartments. The results obtained from the two methods were consistent. Although the maximum concentrations and AUC values of the 53 chemicals roughly correlated in the liver and plasma, inconsistencies were apparent between empirically measured concentrations and the PBPK-modeled levels. The lowest-observed-effect levels and the virtual hepatic AUC values obtained using PBPK models were inversely correlated (r = -0.78, p < 0.05, n = 7). The present simplified PBPK models could estimate the relationships between hepatic/plasma concentrations and oral doses of general chemicals using both forward and reverse dosimetry. These methods are therefore valuable for estimating hepatotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Yamazaki
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yusuke Kamiya
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, Tokyo, Japan
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12
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Regulation of Proliferative Processes in Rat Adrenal Cortex by Transcriptional Factor PRH under Conditions of Developmental Exposure to Endocrine Disruptor DDT. Bull Exp Biol Med 2019; 167:404-407. [DOI: 10.1007/s10517-019-04537-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2018] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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13
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Yaglova NV, Tsomartova DA, Obernikhin SS, Nazimova SV. The Role of the Canonical Wnt-Signaling Pathway in Morphogenesis and Regeneration of the Adrenal Cortex in Rats Exposed to the Endocrine Disruptor Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane during Prenatal and Postnatal Development. BIOL BULL+ 2019. [DOI: 10.1134/s1062359018060122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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14
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Kamiya Y, Otsuka S, Miura T, Takaku H, Yamada R, Nakazato M, Nakamura H, Mizuno S, Shono F, Funatsu K, Yamazaki H. Plasma and Hepatic Concentrations of Chemicals after Virtual Oral Administrations Extrapolated Using Rat Plasma Data and Simple Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Models. Chem Res Toxicol 2018; 32:211-218. [PMID: 30511563 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.8b00307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Only a small fraction of chemicals possesses adequate in vivo toxicokinetic data for assessing potential hazards. The aim of the present study was to model the plasma and hepatic pharmacokinetics of more than 50 disparate types of chemicals and drugs after virtual oral administrations in rats. The models were based on reported pharmacokinetics determined after oral administration to rats. An inverse relationship was observed between no-observed-effect levels after oral administration and chemical absorbance rates evaluated for cell permeability ( r = -0.98, p < 0.001, n = 17). For a varied selection of more than 30 chemicals, the plasma concentration curves and the maximum concentrations obtained using a simple one-compartment model (recently recommended as a high-throughput toxicokinetic model) and a simple physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model (consisting of chemical receptor, metabolizing, and central compartments) were highly consistent. The hepatic and plasma concentrations and the hepatic and plasma areas under the concentration-time curves of more than 50 chemicals were roughly correlated; however, differences were evident between the PBPK-modeled values in livers and empirically obtained values in plasma. Of the compounds selected for analysis, only seven had the lowest observed effect level (LOEL) values for hepatoxicity listed in the Hazard Evaluation Support System Integrated Platform in Japan. For these seven compounds, the LOEL values and the areas under the hepatic concentration-time curves estimated using PBPK modeling were inversely correlated ( r = -0.78, p < 0.05, n = 7). This study provides important information to help simulate the high hepatic levels of potent hepatotoxic compounds. Using suitable PBPK parameters, the present models could estimate the plasma/hepatic concentrations of chemicals and drugs after oral doses using both PBPK forward and reverse dosimetry, thereby indicating the potential value of this modeling approach in predicting hepatic toxicity as a part of risk assessments of chemicals absorbed in the human body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Kamiya
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics , Showa Pharmaceutical University , 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen , Machida, Tokyo 194-8543 , Japan
| | - Shohei Otsuka
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics , Showa Pharmaceutical University , 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen , Machida, Tokyo 194-8543 , Japan
| | - Tomonori Miura
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics , Showa Pharmaceutical University , 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen , Machida, Tokyo 194-8543 , Japan
| | - Hiroka Takaku
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics , Showa Pharmaceutical University , 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen , Machida, Tokyo 194-8543 , Japan
| | - Rio Yamada
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics , Showa Pharmaceutical University , 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen , Machida, Tokyo 194-8543 , Japan
| | - Mayuko Nakazato
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics , Showa Pharmaceutical University , 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen , Machida, Tokyo 194-8543 , Japan
| | - Hitomi Nakamura
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics , Showa Pharmaceutical University , 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen , Machida, Tokyo 194-8543 , Japan
| | - Sawa Mizuno
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics , Showa Pharmaceutical University , 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen , Machida, Tokyo 194-8543 , Japan
| | - Fumiaki Shono
- Department of Chemical System Engineering, School of Engineering , The University of Tokyo , Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656 , Japan
| | - Kimito Funatsu
- Department of Chemical System Engineering, School of Engineering , The University of Tokyo , Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656 , Japan
| | - Hiroshi Yamazaki
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics , Showa Pharmaceutical University , 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen , Machida, Tokyo 194-8543 , Japan
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15
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Changes in Secretory Activity of Adrenal Zona Fasciculata Cells in Pubertal Rats Exposed to Low Doses of DDT in Different Periods of Ontogeny. Bull Exp Biol Med 2018; 166:283-286. [DOI: 10.1007/s10517-018-4333-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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16
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Yaglova NV, Tsomartova DA, Yaglov VV. Differences in Production of Adrenal Steroid Hormones in Pubertal Rats Exposed to Low Doses of the Endocrine Disruptor DDT during Prenatal and Postnatal Development. BIOCHEMISTRY MOSCOW-SUPPLEMENT SERIES B-BIOMEDICAL CHEMISTRY 2018. [DOI: 10.1134/s1990750818010122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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17
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Yaglova NV, Tsomartova DA, Yaglov VV. [Differences in adrenal steroid hormones production in pubertal rats exposed to low doses of endocrine disruptor DDT during prenatal and postnatal development]. BIOMEDIT︠S︡INSKAI︠A︡ KHIMII︠A︡ 2017; 63:306-311. [PMID: 28862600 DOI: 10.18097/pbmc20176304306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Production of adrenal steroid hormones in pubertal male Wistar rats exposed to low doses of DDT during both prenatal and postnatal and only postnatal development was evaluated. Altered production of all types of steroid hormones and serum steroid profile with opposite changes in rats exposed prenatally and postnatally, and only postnatally was found. The study showed that daily exposure to low doses of DDT enhanced conversion of progesterone to 17OH-progesterone and did not exert selective antiandrogenic or proestrogenic action unlike effect of toxic and subtoxic doses. Impaired morphogenesis of the adrenal cortex and circulatory disorders in zona glomerulosa contributed to reduced aldosterone and sex steroid hormones production.
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Affiliation(s)
- N V Yaglova
- Institute of Human Morphology, Moscow, Russia
| | | | - V V Yaglov
- Institute of Human Morphology, Moscow, Russia
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18
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Pirovano A, Brandmaier S, Huijbregts MAJ, Ragas AMJ, Veltman K, Hendriks AJ. QSARs for estimating intrinsic hepatic clearance of organic chemicals in humans. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2016; 42:190-197. [PMID: 26874337 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2016.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2015] [Revised: 01/19/2016] [Accepted: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSARs) were developed to predict the in vitro clearance (CLINT) of xenobiotics metabolised in human hepatocytes (118 compounds) and microsomes (115 compounds). Clearance values were gathered from the scientific literature and multiple linear models were built and validated selecting at most 6 predictors from a pool of over 2000 potential molecular descriptors. For the hepatocytes QSAR, the explained variance (Radj(2)) was 67% and the predictive ability (Rext(2)) was 62%. For the microsomes QSAR, Radj(2) was 50% and Rext(2) 30%. For both liver assays, the most important descriptor relates to electronic properties of the compound. Functional groups of fragments were useful to identify specific compounds that have a deviating reaction rate compared to the others, such as polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs) and organic amides which were poorly metabolised by hepatocytes and microsomes, respectively. For hepatocytes, clearance was predominantly determined by electronic characteristics, while size and shape characteristics were less important and partitioning properties were absent. This may suggest that uptake across the membrane and enzyme binding are not rate-limiting steps. Particularly for hepatocytes the QSAR statistics are encouraging, allowing application of the outcomes in in vitro to in vivo extrapolation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Pirovano
- Radboud University Nijmegen, Institute for Wetland and Water Research, Department of Environmental Science, Heyendaalseweg 135, 6525 AJ Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | - Stefan Brandmaier
- Helmholtz-Zentrum München - German Research Centre for Environmental Health (GmbH), Research Unit of Molecular Epidemiology, Institute of Epidemiology II, Munich, Germany
| | - Mark A J Huijbregts
- Radboud University Nijmegen, Institute for Wetland and Water Research, Department of Environmental Science, Heyendaalseweg 135, 6525 AJ Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Ad M J Ragas
- Radboud University Nijmegen, Institute for Wetland and Water Research, Department of Environmental Science, Heyendaalseweg 135, 6525 AJ Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Faculty of Management, Science and Technology, Open University, Heerlen, The Netherlands
| | - Karin Veltman
- University of Michigan, School of Public Health, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, 1415 Washington Heights, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - A Jan Hendriks
- Radboud University Nijmegen, Institute for Wetland and Water Research, Department of Environmental Science, Heyendaalseweg 135, 6525 AJ Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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19
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Tonnelier A, Coecke S, Zaldívar JM. Screening of chemicals for human bioaccumulative potential with a physiologically based toxicokinetic model. Arch Toxicol 2012; 86:393-403. [PMID: 22089525 PMCID: PMC3282909 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-011-0768-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2011] [Accepted: 10/11/2011] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Human bioaccumulative potential is an important element in the risk assessment of chemicals. Due to the high number of synthetic chemicals, there exists the need to develop prioritisation strategies. The purpose of this study was to develop a predictive tool for human bioaccumulation risk assessment that incorporates not only the chemical properties of the compounds, but also the processes that tend to decrease the concentration of the compound such as metabolisation. We used a generic physiologically based toxicokinetic model that based on in vitro human liver metabolism data, minimal renal excretion and a constant exposure was able to assess the bioaccumulative potential of a chemical. The approach has been analysed using literature data on well-known bioaccumulative compounds and liver metabolism data from the ECVAM database and a subset of the ToxCast phase I chemical library-in total 94 compounds covering pharmaceuticals, plant protection products and industrial chemicals. Our results provide further evidence that partitioning properties do not allow for a reliable screening criteria for human chemical hazard. Our model, based on a 100% intestinal absorption assumption, suggests that metabolic clearance, plasma protein-binding properties and renal excretion are the main factors in determining whether bioaccumulation will occur and its amount. It is essential that in vitro metabolic clearance tests with metabolic competent cell lines as well as plasma protein-binding assays be performed for suspected bioaccumulative compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnaud Tonnelier
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Health and Consumer Protection, Ispra, VA Italy
- INRIA Grenoble, Rhône-Alpes, Montbonnot, France
| | - Sandra Coecke
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Health and Consumer Protection, Ispra, VA Italy
| | - José-Manuel Zaldívar
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Health and Consumer Protection, Ispra, VA Italy
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20
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Takano R, Murayama N, Horiuchi K, Kitajima M, Shono F, Yamazaki H. Blood Concentrations of 1,4-Dioxane in Humans after Oral Administration Extrapolated from In Vivo Rat Pharmacokinetics, In Vitro Human Metabolism, and Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Modeling. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1248/jhs.56.557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ryohji Takano
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University
- Fujitsu Kyusyu Systems
| | - Norie Murayama
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University
| | - Kana Horiuchi
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University
| | | | | | - Hiroshi Yamazaki
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University
- High Technology Research Center, Showa Pharmaceutical University
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