1
|
Prieske O, Behrens M, Chaabene H, Granacher U, Maffiuletti NA. Time to Differentiate Postactivation "Potentiation" from "Performance Enhancement" in the Strength and Conditioning Community. Sports Med 2021; 50:1559-1565. [PMID: 32495254 PMCID: PMC7441077 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-020-01300-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Coaches and athletes in elite sports are constantly seeking to use innovative and advanced training strategies to efficiently improve strength/power performance in already highly-trained individuals. In this regard, high-intensity conditioning contractions have become a popular means to induce acute improvements primarily in muscle contractile properties, which are supposed to translate to subsequent power performances. This performance-enhancing physiological mechanism has previously been called postactivation potentiation (PAP). However, in contrast to the traditional mechanistic understanding of PAP that is based on electrically-evoked twitch properties, an increasing number of studies used the term PAP while referring to acute performance enhancements, even if physiological measures of PAP were not directly assessed. In this current opinion article, we compare the two main approaches (i.e., mechanistic vs. performance) used in the literature to describe PAP effects. We additionally discuss potential misconceptions in the general use of the term PAP. Studies showed that mechanistic and performance-related PAP approaches have different characteristics in terms of the applied research field (basic vs. applied), effective conditioning contractions (e.g., stimulated vs. voluntary), verification (lab-based vs. field tests), effects (twitch peak force vs. maximal voluntary strength), occurrence (consistent vs. inconsistent), and time course (largest effect immediately after vs. ~ 7 min after the conditioning contraction). Moreover, cross-sectional studies revealed inconsistent and trivial-to-large-sized associations between selected measures of mechanistic (e.g., twitch peak force) vs. performance-related PAP approaches (e.g., jump height). In an attempt to avoid misconceptions related to the two different PAP approaches, we propose to use two different terms. Postactivation potentiation should only be used to indicate the increase in muscular force/torque production during an electrically-evoked twitch. In contrast, postactivation performance enhancement (PAPE) should be used to refer to the enhancement of measures of maximal strength, power, and speed following conditioning contractions. The implementation of this terminology would help to better differentiate between mechanistic and performance-related PAP approaches. This is important from a physiological point of view, but also when it comes to aggregating findings from PAP studies, e.g., in the form of meta-analyses, and translating these findings to the field of strength and conditioning.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Olaf Prieske
- University of Applied Sciences for Sports and Management Potsdam, Am Luftschiffhafen 1, 14471, Potsdam, Germany.
| | - Martin Behrens
- Institute of Sport Science, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Helmi Chaabene
- Division of Training and Movement Sciences, Research Focus Cognitive Sciences, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Urs Granacher
- Division of Training and Movement Sciences, Research Focus Cognitive Sciences, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | | |
Collapse
|
2
|
Ng F, Wen Yam J, Lum D, Barbosa TM. Human thrust in aquatic environment: The effect of post-activation potentiation on flutter kick. J Adv Res 2020; 21:65-70. [PMID: 31666995 PMCID: PMC6811994 DOI: 10.1016/j.jare.2019.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2019] [Revised: 09/23/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Herein, we analyse by experimental techniques the human kicking thrust and measure the effect of a warm-up routine that includes post-activation potentiation (PAP) sets on front-crawl flutter kick thrust, kinematics, and performance. Sixteen male competitive swimmers with 22.13 ± 3.84 years of age were randomly assigned in a crossover manner to undergo a standard warm-up (non-PAP; control condition) and a warm-up that included PAP sets (PAP; experimental condition) consisting in 2 × 5 repetitions of unloaded countermovement jump. Participants performed a 25 m all-out trial in front-crawl with only flutter kicks eight min after each warm-up. Kinetics (i.e., peak thrust, mean thrust, and thrust-time integral) and kinematics (i.e., speed, speed fluctuation and kicking frequency) were experimentally collected by an in-house customized system composed of differential pressure sensors, speedo-meter, and underwater camera. Peak thrust (P = 0.02, d = 0.66) and mean thrust (P = 0.10, d = 0.40) were increased by 15% in PAP compared to non-PAP. Large and significant differences were noted in speed (P = 0.01, d = 0.54) and speed fluctuation (P = 0.02, d = 0.58), which improved by 10% in PAP compared with non-PAP. In conclusion, a warm-up that includes PAP sets improves kicking thrust, kinematics and performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Felicia Ng
- Physical Education and Sport Science Academic Group, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637616, Singapore
| | - Jia Wen Yam
- Physical Education and Sport Science Academic Group, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637616, Singapore
| | - Danny Lum
- Physical Education and Sport Science Academic Group, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637616, Singapore
- Singapore Sports Institute, Sport Science and Medicine Centre, Singapore 397630, Singapore
| | - Tiago M Barbosa
- Physical Education and Sport Science Academic Group, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637616, Singapore
- Department of Sports Sciences, Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Bragança 5300-252, Portugal
- Research Center in Sport, Health and Human Development, CIDESD, Vila Real 5001-801, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Gago PR, Arndt A, Marques MC, Marinho DA, Ekblom MM. Effects of post activation potentiation on electromechanical delay. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 2019; 70:115-122. [PMID: 31476603 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2019.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2019] [Revised: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 08/01/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Electromechanical delay (EMD) presumably depends upon both contractile and tensile factors. It has recently been used as an indirect measure of muscle tendon stiffness to study adaptations to stretching and training. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether contractile properties induced by a 6 s maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) could affect EMD without altering passive muscle tendon stiffness or stiffness index. Plantar flexor twitches were evoked via electrical stimulation of the tibial nerve in eight highly trained male sprinters before and after a 6 s MVIC in passive isometric or passively shortening or lengthening muscles. For each twitch, EMD, twitch contractile properties and SOLM-Wave were measured. Passive muscle tendon stiffness was measured from the slope of the relation between torque and ankle angle during controlled passive dorsal flexion and stiffness index by curve-fitting the torque angle data using a second-order polynomial function. EMD did not differ between isometric, lengthening or shortening movements. EMD was reduced by up to 11.56 ± 5.64% immediately after the MVIC and stayed depressed for up to 60 s after conditioning. Peak twitch torque and rate of torque development were potentiated by up to 119.41 ± 37.15% and 116.06 ± 37.39%, respectively. Rising time was reduced by up to 14.46 ± 7.22%. No significant changes occurred in passive muscle tendon stiffness or stiffness index. Using a conditioning MVIC, it was shown that there was an acute enhancement of contractile muscle properties as well as a significant reduction in EMD with no corresponding changes in stiffness. Therefore, caution should be taken when using and interpreting EMD as a proxy for muscle tendon stiffness.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paulo R Gago
- Biomechanics and Motor Control Laboratory, The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences (GIH), Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anton Arndt
- Biomechanics and Motor Control Laboratory, The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences (GIH), Stockholm, Sweden; Institution CLINTEC, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Mário C Marques
- University of Beira Interior (UBI), Covilhã, Portugal; Research Centre in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Daniel A Marinho
- University of Beira Interior (UBI), Covilhã, Portugal; Research Centre in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Maria M Ekblom
- Biomechanics and Motor Control Laboratory, The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences (GIH), Stockholm, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Zimmermann HB, MacIntosh BR, Dal Pupo J. Does postactivation potentiation (PAP) increase voluntary performance? Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2019; 45:349-356. [PMID: 31557447 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2019-0406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The transient increase in torque of an electrically evoked twitch following a voluntary contraction is called postactivation potentiation (PAP). Phosphorylation of myosin regulatory light chains is the most accepted mechanism explaining the enhanced electrically evoked twitch torque. While many authors attribute voluntary postactivation performance enhancement (PAPE) to the positive effects of PAP, few actually confirmed that contraction was indeed potentiated using electrical stimulation (twitch response) at the time that PAPE was measured. Thus, this review aims to investigate if increases in voluntary performance after a conditioning contraction (CC) are related to the PAP phenomenon. For this, studies that confirmed the presence of PAP through an evoked response after a voluntary CC and concurrently evaluated PAPE were reviewed. Some studies reported increases in PAPE when PAP reaches extremely high values. However, PAPE has also been reported when PAP was not present, and unchanged/diminished performance has been identified when PAP was present. This range of observations demonstrates that mechanisms of PAPE are different from mechanisms of PAP. These mechanisms of PAPE still need to be understood and those studying PAPE should not assume that regulatory light chain phosphorylation is the mechanism for such enhanced voluntary performance. Novelty The occurrence of PAP does not necessarily mean that the voluntary performance will be improved. Improvement in voluntary performance is sometimes observed when the PAP level reaches extremely high values. Other mechanisms may be more relevant than that for PAP in the manifestation of acute increases in performance following a conditioning contraction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Haiko Bruno Zimmermann
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Sports Center, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianopolis, SC 88040900, Brazil
| | - Brian R MacIntosh
- Human Performance Laboratory, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Juliano Dal Pupo
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Sports Center, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianopolis, SC 88040900, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Gago P, Zoellner A, Cézar Lima da Silva J, Ekblom MM. Post Activation Potentiation and Concentric Contraction Performance: Effects on Rate of Torque Development, Neuromuscular Efficiency, and Tensile Properties. J Strength Cond Res 2018; 34:1600-1608. [PMID: 29373430 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000002427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Gago, P, Zoellner, A, Cezar, J, and Ekblom, MM. Post activation potentiation and concentric contraction performance: effects on rate of torque development, neuromuscular efficiency and tensile properties. J Strength Cond Res 34(6): 1600-1608, 2020-This study investigated how a 6-second maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) conditioning affected plantar flexor twitch rate of torque development (RTDTW), as well as peak torque (PTCC) and rate of torque development (RTDCC) of maximal voluntary concentric contractions (MVCC) performed at 60°·s. RTDCC and normalized triceps surae electromyography signals (EMGTS) were measured during different phases of contraction. In addition, muscle tendon unit passive stiffness index (SI) calculated from the torque-angle relation was measured after each MVCC. Enhancements were found in the RTDTW immediately (by 59.7%) and up to 480 seconds (by 6.0%) after MVIC (p < 0.05). RTDCC during the 100-200 ms, 50-200 ms, and 0-200 ms phases and PTCC were enhanced (by 5.7-9.5%) from 90 to 300 seconds after conditioning (p < 0.05). Neuromuscular efficiency increased (decreased EMGTS/RTDCC) in the 50-200 ms and 0-200 ms phases by 8.8-12.4%, from 90 to 480 seconds after MVIC (p < 0.05). No significant changes were found in the SI or in RTDCC during the 50-100 ms phase, suggesting that the enhancements reported reflect mainly contractile rather than neural or tensile mechanisms. PAP effects on PTCC and RTDCC were significant and more durable at a lower velocity than previously reported. Enhancement in RTDCC and neuromuscular efficiency were found to be more prominent in later phases (>100 ms) of the MVCC. This suggests that enhanced contractile properties, attained through MVIC, benefit concentric contraction performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paulo Gago
- Laboratory of Biomechanics and Motor Control (BMC), The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences, GIH, Stockholm, Sweden.,Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal; and
| | - Anja Zoellner
- Laboratory of Biomechanics and Motor Control (BMC), The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences, GIH, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Julio Cézar Lima da Silva
- Laboratory of Biomechanics and Motor Control (BMC), The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences, GIH, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Maria M Ekblom
- Laboratory of Biomechanics and Motor Control (BMC), The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences, GIH, Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Alamo L, Pinto A, Sulbarán G, Mavárez J, Padrón R. Lessons from a tarantula: new insights into myosin interacting-heads motif evolution and its implications on disease. Biophys Rev 2017; 10:1465-1477. [PMID: 28871552 DOI: 10.1007/s12551-017-0292-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2017] [Accepted: 07/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Tarantula's leg muscle thick filament is the ideal model for the study of the structure and function of skeletal muscle thick filaments. Its analysis has given rise to a series of structural and functional studies, leading, among other things, to the discovery of the myosin interacting-heads motif (IHM). Further electron microscopy (EM) studies have shown the presence of IHM in frozen-hydrated and negatively stained thick filaments of striated, cardiac, and smooth muscle of bilaterians, most showing the IHM parallel to the filament axis. EM studies on negatively stained heavy meromyosin of different species have shown the presence of IHM on sponges, animals that lack muscle, extending the presence of IHM to metazoans. The IHM evolved about 800 MY ago in the ancestor of Metazoa, and independently with functional differences in the lineage leading to the slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum (Mycetozoa). This motif conveys important functional advantages, such as Ca2+ regulation and ATP energy-saving mechanisms. Recent interest has focused on human IHM structure in order to understand the structural basis underlying various conditions and situations of scientific and medical interest: the hypertrophic and dilated cardiomyopathies, overfeeding control, aging and hormone deprival muscle weakness, drug design for schistosomiasis control, and conditioning exercise physiology for the training of power athletes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Alamo
- Centro de Biología Estructural "Humberto Fernández-Morán", Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas (IVIC), Apdo. 20632, Caracas, 1020A, Venezuela
| | - Antonio Pinto
- Centro de Biología Estructural "Humberto Fernández-Morán", Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas (IVIC), Apdo. 20632, Caracas, 1020A, Venezuela
| | - Guidenn Sulbarán
- Centro de Biología Estructural "Humberto Fernández-Morán", Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas (IVIC), Apdo. 20632, Caracas, 1020A, Venezuela.,Institut de Biologie Structurale (IBS), CEA-CNRS Université Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France
| | - Jesús Mavárez
- Laboratoire d'Ecologie Alpine, UMR 5553 CNRS-Université Grenoble Alpes, 2233 Rue de la Piscine, 38041, Grenoble, France
| | - Raúl Padrón
- Centro de Biología Estructural "Humberto Fernández-Morán", Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas (IVIC), Apdo. 20632, Caracas, 1020A, Venezuela.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Gago P, Arndt A, Ekblom MM. Post Activation Potentiation of the Plantarflexors: Implications of Knee Angle Variations. J Hum Kinet 2017; 57:29-38. [PMID: 28713456 PMCID: PMC5504576 DOI: 10.1515/hukin-2017-0044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Flexing the knee to isolate the single joint soleus from the biarticular gastrocnemius is a strategy for investigating individual plantarflexor’s post activation potentiation (PAP). We investigated the implications of testing plantarflexor PAP at different knee angles and provided indirect quantification of the contribution of gastrocnemius potentiation to the overall plantarflexor enhancements post conditioning. Plantarflexor supramaximal twitches were measured in ten male power athletes before and after a maximal isometric plantarflexion (MVIC) at both flexed and extended knee angles. Mean torque and soleus (SOLRMS) and medial gastrocnemius (MGRMS) activity were measured during the MVIC. The mean torque and MGRMS of the MVIC were lower (by 33.9 and 42.4%, respectively) in the flexed compared to the extended position, with no significant difference in SOLRMS. After the MVIC, twitch peak torque (PT) and the rate of torque development (RTR) potentiated significantly more (by 17.4 and 14.7% respectively) in the extended as compared to the flexed knee position, but only immediately (5 s) after the MVIC. No significant differences were found in the twitch rate of torque development (RTD) potentiation between positions. It was concluded that knee joint configuration should be taken into consideration when comparing studies of plantarflexor PAP. Furthermore, results reflect a rather brief contribution of the gastrocnemius potentiation to the overall plantarflexor twitch enhancements.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paulo Gago
- The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences, GIH, Stockholm, Sweden.,Research Center for Sport, Health and Human Development, (CIDESD), Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Anton Arndt
- The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences, GIH, Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of CLINTEC, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Maria M Ekblom
- The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences, GIH, Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Post activation potentiation can be induced without impairing tendon stiffness. Eur J Appl Physiol 2014; 114:2299-308. [PMID: 25048072 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-014-2945-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2014] [Accepted: 06/23/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study aimed to investigate conditioning effects from a single 6-s plantar flexion maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) on Achilles tendon stiffness (ATS) and twitch properties of the triceps surae in athletes. METHODS Peak twitch (PT), rate of torque development (RTD), rising time (RT₁₀₋₉₀%) and half relaxation time (HRT) were measured from supramaximal twitches evoked in the plantar flexors of 10 highly trained athletes. Twitches were evoked before and at seven occasions during 10 min of recovery after a 6-s MVIC. In a second session, but at identical post-conditioning time points, ATS was measured at 30 and 50% of MVIC (ATS₃₀% and ATS₅₀%) using an ultrasonography-based method. RESULTS The magnitude and duration of the conditioning MVIC on muscle contractile properties were in accordance with previous literature on post activation potentiation (PAP), i.e., high potentiation immediately after MVIC, with significant PAP for up to 3 min after the MVIC. While PT and RTD were significantly enhanced (by 60.6 ± 19.3 and 90.1 ± 22.5%, respectively) and RT₁₀₋₉₀% and HRT were reduced (by 10.1 ± 7.7 and 18.7 ± 5.6%, respectively) after conditioning, ATS remained unaffected. CONCLUSIONS Previous studies have suggested that changes in stiffness after conditioning may interfere with the enhancements in twitch contractile properties. The present study, however, provided some evidence that twitch enhancements after a standard PAP can be induced without changes in ATS. This result may suggest that athletes can use this protocol to enhance muscle contractile properties without performance deficits due to changes in ATS.
Collapse
|