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Rebelo-Marques A, Coelho-Ribeiro B, De Sousa Lages A, Andrade R, Afonso J, Pereira R, Batista AS, Teixeira VH, Jácome C. Trends and Missing Links in (De)Hydration Research: A Narrative Review. Nutrients 2024; 16:1709. [PMID: 38892642 PMCID: PMC11174495 DOI: 10.3390/nu16111709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2024] [Revised: 05/24/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Despite decades of literature on (de)hydration in healthy individuals, many unanswered questions remain. To outline research and policy priorities, it is fundamental to recognize the literature trends on (de)hydration and identify current research gaps, which herein we aimed to pinpoint. From a representative sample of 180 (de)hydration studies with 4350 individuals, we found that research is mainly limited to small-scale laboratory-based sample sizes, with high variability in demographics (sex, age, and level of competition); to non-ecological (highly simulated and controlled) conditions; and with a focus on recreationally active male adults (e.g., Tier 1, non-athletes). The laboratory-simulated environments are limiting factors underpinning the need to better translate scientific research into field studies. Although, consistently, dehydration is defined as the loss of 2% of body weight, the hydration status is estimated using a very heterogeneous range of parameters. Water is the most researched hydration fluid, followed by alcoholic beverages with added carbohydrates (CHO). The current research still overlooks beverages supplemented with proteins, amino acids (AA), and glycerol. Future research should invest more effort in "real-world" studies with larger and more heterogeneous cohorts, exploring the entire available spectrum of fluids while addressing hydration outcomes more harmoniously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Rebelo-Marques
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
- Coimbra Institute for Clinical and Biomedical Research (iCBR), Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3000-370 Coimbra, Portugal
- Magismed Innovation Institute, 4710-353 Braga, Portugal
| | - Bruna Coelho-Ribeiro
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
- ICVS/3B’s-PT Government Associate Laboratory, 4806-909 Guimarães, Portugal
| | | | - Renato Andrade
- Clínica Espregueira—FIFA Medical Centre of Excellence, 4350-415 Porto, Portugal
- Dom Henrique Research Centre, 4350-415 Porto, Portugal
- Porto Biomechanics Laboratory (LABIOMEP), Faculty of Sports, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
| | - José Afonso
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation, and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
| | - Rogério Pereira
- Clínica Espregueira—FIFA Medical Centre of Excellence, 4350-415 Porto, Portugal
- Dom Henrique Research Centre, 4350-415 Porto, Portugal
- Higher School of Health Fernando Pessoa, 4200-253 Porto, Portugal
| | | | - Vitor Hugo Teixeira
- Faculty of Nutrition and Food Sciences, University of Porto, 4150-180 Porto, Portugal
- Research Center in Physical Activity, Health and Leisure, CIAFEL, Faculty of Sports, University of Porto, FADEUP, 4200-540 Porto, Portugal
- Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health, ITR, 4050-600 Porto, Portugal
| | - Cristina Jácome
- CINTESIS@RISE, MEDCIDS, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4099-002 Porto, Portugal
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Muñoz-Urtubia N, Vega-Muñoz A, Estrada-Muñoz C, Salazar-Sepúlveda G, Contreras-Barraza N, Castillo D. Healthy Behavior and Sports Drinks: A Systematic Review. Nutrients 2023; 15:2915. [PMID: 37447239 PMCID: PMC10346316 DOI: 10.3390/nu15132915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
This review article aims to systematically identify the relationship between sports drinks and healthy behavior. This systematic literature review was conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guideline criteria, and eligibility criteria were established using the PICOS tool (population, interventions, comparators, outcomes, and study) from about 1000 records of sports drinks articles identified in the various Web of Science Core Collection databases. The literature review stages determined a reduced set of 15 articles relating these drinkable supplements to healthy behavior. This study concludes that water consumption should be emphasized for non-athletes, sports drinks should be labeled to indicate water consumption and carry a warning label, and more randomized clinical trials should be considered to ensure conclusive results for health decision making.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alejandro Vega-Muñoz
- Instituto de Investigación y Postgrado, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Central de Chile, Santiago 8330507, Chile
- Public Policy Observatory, Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Santiago 7500912, Chile
| | - Carla Estrada-Muñoz
- Departamento de Ergonomía, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción 4070386, Chile;
| | - Guido Salazar-Sepúlveda
- Departamento de Ingeniería Industrial, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Concepción 4090541, Chile
- Facultad de Ingeniería y Negocios, Universidad de Las Américas, Concepción 4090940, Chile
| | | | - Dante Castillo
- Centro de Estudios e Investigación Enzo Faletto, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago 9170022, Chile;
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Bourdas DI, Souglis A, Zacharakis ED, Geladas ND, Travlos AK. Meta-Analysis of Carbohydrate Solution Intake during Prolonged Exercise in Adults: From the Last 45+ Years' Perspective. Nutrients 2021; 13:4223. [PMID: 34959776 PMCID: PMC8704222 DOI: 10.3390/nu13124223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Revised: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Carbohydrate (CHO) supplementation during prolonged exercise postpones fatigue. However, the optimum administration timing, dosage, type of CHO intake, and possible interaction of the ergogenic effect with athletes' cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) are not clear. Ninety-six studies (from relevant databases based on predefined eligibility criteria) were selected for meta-analysis to investigate the acute effect of ≤20% CHO solutions on prolonged exercise performance. The between-subject standardized mean difference [SMD = ([mean post-value treatment group-mean post-value control group]/pooled variance)] was assessed. Overall, SMD [95% CI] of 0.43 [0.35, 0.51] was significant (p < 0.001). Subgroup analysis showed that SMD was reduced as the subjects' CRF level increased, with a 6-8% CHO solution composed of GL:FRU improving performance (exercise: 1-4 h); administration during the event led to a superior performance compared to administration before the exercise, with a 6-8% single-source CHO solution increasing performance in intermittent and 'stop and start' sports and an ~6% CHO solution appearing beneficial for 45-60 min exercises, but there were no significant differences between subjects' gender and age groups, varied CHO concentrations, doses, or types in the effect measurement. The evidence found was sound enough to support the hypothesis that CHO solutions, when ingested during endurance exercise, have ergogenic action and a possible crossover interaction with the subject's CRF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitrios I. Bourdas
- Section of Sport Medicine & Biology of Exercise, School of Physical Education and Sports Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 41 Ethnikis Antistasis, 17237 Athens, Greece;
| | - Athanasios Souglis
- Section of Didactics and Coaching in Sport Games, School of Physical Education & Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 41 Ethnikis Antistasis, 17237 Athens, Greece; (A.S.); (E.D.Z.)
| | - Emmanouil D. Zacharakis
- Section of Didactics and Coaching in Sport Games, School of Physical Education & Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 41 Ethnikis Antistasis, 17237 Athens, Greece; (A.S.); (E.D.Z.)
| | - Nickos D. Geladas
- Section of Sport Medicine & Biology of Exercise, School of Physical Education and Sports Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 41 Ethnikis Antistasis, 17237 Athens, Greece;
| | - Antonios K. Travlos
- Department of Sports Organization and Management, Faculty of Human Movement and Quality of Life Sciences, University of Peloponnese, Efstathiou and Stamatikis Valioti & Plataion Avenue, 23100 Tripoli, Greece;
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Scrivin R, Black K. Sports Drinks Consumed During Exercise, Which Affect Thermoregulation and/or Athletic Performance in the Heat: A Review. Strength Cond J 2018. [DOI: 10.1519/ssc.0000000000000394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Otani H, Kaya M, Tamaki A, Watson P, Maughan RJ. Air velocity influences thermoregulation and endurance exercise capacity in the heat. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2018; 43:131-138. [DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2017-0448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
This study examined the effects of variations in air velocity on time to exhaustion and thermoregulatory and perceptual responses to exercise in a hot environment. Eight male volunteers completed stationary cycle exercise trials at 70% peak oxygen uptake until exhaustion in an environmental chamber maintained at 30 °C and 50% relative humidity. Four air velocity conditions, 30, 20, 10, and 0 km/h, were tested, and the headwind was directed at the frontal aspect of the subject by 2 industrial fans, with blade diameters of 1 m and 0.5 m, set in series and positioned 3 m from the subject’s chest. Mean ± SD time to exhaustion was 90 ± 17, 73 ± 16, 58 ± 13, and 41 ± 10 min in 30-, 20-, 10-, and 0-km/h trials, respectively, and was different between all trials (P < 0.05). There were progressive elevations in the rate of core temperature rise, mean skin temperature, and perceived thermal sensation as airflow decreases (P < 0.05). Core temperature, heart rate, cutaneous vascular conductance, and perceived exertion were higher and evaporative heat loss was lower without airflow than at any given airflow (P < 0.05). Dry heat loss and plasma volume were similar between trials (P > 0.05). The present study demonstrated a progressive reduction in time to exhaustion as air velocity decreases. This response is associated with a faster rate of core temperature rise and a higher skin temperature and perceived thermal stress with decreasing airflow. Moreover, airflow greater than 10 km/h (2.8 m/s) might contribute to enhancing endurance exercise capacity and reducing thermoregulatory, cardiovascular, and perceptual strain during exercise in a hot environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hidenori Otani
- Faculty of Health Care Sciences, Himeji Dokkyo University, 7-2-1 Kamiono, Himeji, Hyogo 670-8524, Japan
| | - Mitsuharu Kaya
- Hyogo University of Health Sciences, 1-3-6 Minatojima, Chuo-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 650-8530, Japan
| | - Akira Tamaki
- Hyogo University of Health Sciences, 1-3-6 Minatojima, Chuo-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 650-8530, Japan
| | - Phillip Watson
- Department of Human Physiology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Ronald J. Maughan
- School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9AJ, UK
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Separate and combined effects of exposure to heat stress and mental fatigue on endurance exercise capacity in the heat. Eur J Appl Physiol 2016; 117:119-129. [PMID: 27864637 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-016-3504-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2016] [Accepted: 11/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study investigated the effects of exposure to pre-exercise heat stress and mental fatigue on endurance exercise capacity in a hot environment. METHODS Eight volunteers completed four cycle exercise trials at 80% maximum oxygen uptake until exhaustion in an environmental chamber maintained at 30 °C and 50% relative humidity. The four trials required them to complete a 90 min pre-exercise routine of either a seated rest (CON), a prolonged demanding cognitive task to induce mental fatigue (MF), warm water immersion at 40 °C during the last 30 min to induce increasing core temperature (WI), or a prolonged demanding cognitive task and warm water immersion at 40 °C during the last 30 min (MF + WI). RESULTS Core temperature when starting exercise was higher following warm water immersion (~38 °C; WI and MF + WI) than with no water immersion (~36.8 °C; CON and MF, P < 0.001). Self-reported mental fatigue when commencing exercise was higher following cognitive task (MF and MF + WI) than with no cognitive task (CON and WI; P < 0.05). Exercise time to exhaustion was reduced by warm water immersion (P < 0.001) and cognitive task (P < 0.05). Compared with CON (18 ± 7 min), exercise duration reduced 0.8, 26.6 and 46.3% in MF (17 ± 7 min), WI (12 ± 5 min) and MF + WI (9 ± 3 min), respectively. CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrates that endurance exercise capacity in a hot environment is impaired by either exposure to pre-exercise heat stress or mental fatigue, and this response is synergistically increased during combined exposure to them.
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Effects of solar radiation on endurance exercise capacity in a hot environment. Eur J Appl Physiol 2016; 116:769-79. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-016-3335-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2015] [Accepted: 01/23/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Watson P, Nichols D, Cordery P. Mouth rinsing with a carbohydrate solution does not influence cycle time trial performance in the heat. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2014; 39:1064-9. [DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2013-0413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Ten endurance-trained males were recruited to examine the possible role of carbohydrate (CHO) receptors in the mouth influencing exercise performance in the heat. Volunteers completed an incremental test to exhaustion to determine peak oxygen uptake, a familiarisation trial, followed by 2 experimental trials. Trials consisted of a 1-h time trial undertaken in a climatic chamber maintained at 30 °C, 60% relative humidity. Immediately before, and at regular intervals throughout exercise, subjects ingested a bolus of water and then were provided with either a placebo (PLA) or a 6.4% glucose (CHO) solution to rinse in the mouth for 10 s before being expectorated. There was no difference in total work done between the PLA and CHO trials (758.8 ± 149.0 kJ; 762.6 ± 141.1 kJ; P = 0.951). Pacing was also similar, with no differences in power output apparent during the experimental trials (P = 0.546). Core temperature (P = 0.615), heart rate (P = 0.505), ratings of perceived exertion (P = 0.181), and perceived thermal stress (P = 0.416) were not influenced by the nature of the intervention. Blood glucose concentrations were similar during the CHO and PLA trials (P = 0.117). In contrast to the findings of several studies undertaken in temperate conditions, the present investigation failed to support role of oral sensing of CHO in influencing performance during prolonged exercise in warm conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phillip Watson
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, UK
- Department of Human Physiology and Sports Medicine, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels B-1050, Belgium
| | - David Nichols
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, UK
| | - Philip Cordery
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, UK
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Nassif C, Gomes AR, Peixoto GHC, Chagas MH, Soares DD, Silami-Garcia E, Drinkwater EJ, Cannon J, Marino FE. The effect of double--blind carbohydrate ingestion during 60 km of self-paced exercise in warm ambient conditions. PLoS One 2014; 9:e104710. [PMID: 25110952 PMCID: PMC4128743 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0104710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2014] [Accepted: 07/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
This study evaluated double blind ingestions of placebo (PLA) versus 6% carbohydrate (CHO) either as capsules (c) or beverage (b) during 60 km self-paced cycling in the heat (32°C and 50% relative humidity). Ten well-trained males (mean ± SD: 26±3 years; 64.5±7.7 kg and 70.7±8.8 ml.kg−1.min−1 maximal oxygen consumption) completed four separate 60 km time trials (TT) punctuated by 1 km sprints (14, 29, 44, 59 km) whilst ingesting either PLAb or PLAc or CHOb or CHOc. The TT was not different among treatments (PLAb 130.2±11.2 min, CHOb 140.5±18.1 min, PLAc 143.1±29.2 min, CHOc 137.3±20.1 min; P>0.05). Effect size (Cohen’s d) for time was only moderate when comparing CHOb – PLAb (d = 0.68) and PLAb – PLAc (d = 0.57) whereas all other ES were ‘trivial’ to ‘small’. Mean speed throughout the trial was significantly higher for PLAb only (P<0.05). Power output was only different (P<0.05) between the sprints and low intensity efforts within and across conditions. Core and mean skin temperatures were similar among trials. We conclude that CHO ingestion is of little or no benefit as a beverage compared with placebo during 60 km TT in the heat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camila Nassif
- School of Human Movement Studies, Charles Sturt University, Bathurst, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Aline Regina Gomes
- School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Gustavo H. C. Peixoto
- School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Mauro Heleno Chagas
- School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Danusa Dias Soares
- School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Emerson Silami-Garcia
- School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Eric J. Drinkwater
- School of Human Movement Studies, Charles Sturt University, Bathurst, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Jack Cannon
- School of Human Movement Studies, Charles Sturt University, Bathurst, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Frank E. Marino
- School of Human Movement Studies, Charles Sturt University, Bathurst, New South Wales, Australia
- * E-mail:
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Stellingwerff T, Cox GR. Systematic review: Carbohydrate supplementation on exercise performance or capacity of varying durations. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2014; 39:998-1011. [PMID: 24951297 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2014-0027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
This systematic review examines the efficacy of carbohydrate (CHO) supplementation on exercise performance of varying durations. Included studies utilized an all-out or endurance-based exercise protocol (no team-based performance studies) and featured randomized interventions and placebo (water-only) trial for comparison against exclusively CHO trials (no other ingredients). Of the 61 included published performance studies (n = 679 subjects), 82% showed statistically significant performance benefits (n = 50 studies), with 18% showing no change compared with placebo. There was a significant (p = 0.0036) correlative relationship between increasing total exercise time and the subsequent percent increase in performance with CHO intake versus placebo. While not mutually exclusive, the primary mechanism(s) for performance enhancement likely differs depending on the duration of the exercise. In short duration exercise situations (∼1 h), oral receptor exposure to CHO, via either mouthwash or oral consumption (with enough oral contact time), which then stimulates the pleasure and reward centers of the brain, provide a central nervous system-based mechanism for enhanced performance. Thus, the type and (or) amount of CHO and its ability to be absorbed and oxidized appear completely irrelevant to enhancing performance in short duration exercise situations. For longer duration exercise (>2 h), where muscle glycogen stores are stressed, the primary mechanism by which carbohydrate supplementation enhances performance is via high rates of CHO delivery (>90 g/h), resulting in high rates of CHO oxidation. Use of multiple transportable carbohydrates (glucose:fructose) are beneficial in prolonged exercise, although individual recommendations for athletes should be tailored according to each athlete's individual tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trent Stellingwerff
- a Canadian Sport Institute - Pacific, 4371 Interurban Road, Victoria, BC V9E 2C5, Canada
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SMITH JOHNERICW, PASCOE DAVIDD, PASSE DENNISH, RUBY BRENTC, STEWART LAURAK, BAKER LINDSAYB, ZACHWIEJA JEFFREYJ. Curvilinear Dose–Response Relationship of Carbohydrate (0–120 g·h−1) and Performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2013; 45:336-41. [DOI: 10.1249/mss.0b013e31827205d1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Rinsing carbohydrate solutions in the mouth; effect on cycle time trial performance in the heat. Proc Nutr Soc 2013. [DOI: 10.1017/s0029665113002243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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