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Munezero E, Behan NA, Diaz SG, Neumann EM, MacFarlane AJ. Poor Reporting Quality in Basic Nutrition Research: A Case Study Based on a Scoping Review of Recent Folate Research in Mouse Models (2009-2021). Adv Nutr 2022; 13:2666-2678. [PMID: 35820042 PMCID: PMC9776625 DOI: 10.1093/advances/nmac056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Revised: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Transparent reporting of nutrition research promotes rigor, reproducibility, and relevance to human nutrition. We performed a scoping review of recent articles reporting dietary folate interventions in mice as a case study to determine the reporting frequency of generic study design items (i.e., sex, strain, and age) and nutrition-specific items (i.e., base diet composition, intervention doses, duration, and exposure verification) in basic nutrition research. We identified 798 original research articles in the EMBASE, Medline, Food Science and Technology Abstracts (FSTA), Global Health, and International Pharmaceutical Abstracts (IPA) databases published between January 2009 and July 2021 in which a dietary folic acid (FA) intervention was used in mice. We identified 312 original peer-reviewed articles including 191 studies in nonpregnant and 126 in pregnant mice. Most studies reported sex (99%), strain (99%), and age (83%). The majority of studies used C57BL/6 (53%) or BALB/c (11%) mice aged 3-9 wk. Nonpregnancy studies were more likely to use only male mice (57%). Dietary FA interventions varied considerably and overlapped: deficiency (0-3 mg/kg), control (0-16 mg/kg), and supplemented (0-50 mg/kg). Only 63% of studies used an open-formula base diet with a declared FA content and 60% of studies verified FA exposure using folate status biomarkers. The duration of intervention ranged from 1 to 104 wk for nonpregnancy studies. The duration of intervention for pregnancy studies was 1-19 wk, occurring variably before pregnancy and/or during pregnancy and/or lactation. Overall, 17% of studies did not report ≥1 generic study design item(s) and 40% did not report ≥1 nutrition-specific study design item(s). The variability and frequent lack of reporting of important generic and nutrition-specific study design details in nutrition studies limit their generalizability, reproducibility, and interpretation. The use of reporting checklists for animal research would enhance reporting quality of key study design and conduct factors in animal-based nutrition research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Amanda J MacFarlane
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada.,Nutrition Research Division, Health Canada, Ottawa, Canada
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Eckrich J, Kugler P, Buhr CR, Ernst BP, Mendler S, Baumgart J, Brieger J, Wiesmann N. Monitoring of tumor growth and vascularization with repetitive ultrasonography in the chicken chorioallantoic-membrane-assay. Sci Rep 2020; 10:18585. [PMID: 33122780 PMCID: PMC7596505 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-75660-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The chorioallantoic-membrane (CAM)-assay is an established model for in vivo tumor research. Contrary to rodent-xenograft-models, the CAM-assay does not require breeding of immunodeficient strains due to native immunodeficiency. This allows xenografts to grow on the non-innervated CAM without pain or impairment for the embryo. Considering multidirectional tumor growth, limited monitoring capability of tumor size is the main methodological limitation of the CAM-assay for tumor research. Enclosure of the tumor by the radiopaque eggshell and the small structural size only allows monitoring from above and challenges established imaging techniques. We report the eligibility of ultrasonography for repetitive visualization of tumor growth and vascularization in the CAM-assay. After tumor ingrowth, ultrasonography was repetitively performed in ovo using a commercial ultrasonographic scanner. Finally, the tumor was excised and histologically analyzed. Tumor growth and angiogenesis were successfully monitored and findings in ultrasonographic imaging significantly correlated with results obtained in histological analysis. Ultrasonography is cost efficient and widely available. Tumor imaging in ovo enables the longitudinal monitoring of tumoral development, yet allowing high quantitative output due to the CAM-assays simple and cheap methodology. Thus, this methodological novelty improves reproducibility in the field of in vivo tumor experimentation emphasizing the CAM-assay as an alternative to rodent-xenograft-models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Eckrich
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Medical Center Mainz, Langenbeckstrasse 1, 55131, Mainz, Germany.
| | - Philipp Kugler
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Medical Center Mainz, Langenbeckstrasse 1, 55131, Mainz, Germany
| | - Christoph Raphael Buhr
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Medical Center Mainz, Langenbeckstrasse 1, 55131, Mainz, Germany
| | - Benjamin Philipp Ernst
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Medical Center Mainz, Langenbeckstrasse 1, 55131, Mainz, Germany
| | - Simone Mendler
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Medical Center Mainz, Langenbeckstrasse 1, 55131, Mainz, Germany
| | - Jan Baumgart
- Translational Animal Research Center, University Medical Center Mainz, Hanns-Dieter-Hüsch-Weg 19, 55128, Mainz, Germany
| | - Juergen Brieger
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Medical Center Mainz, Langenbeckstrasse 1, 55131, Mainz, Germany
| | - Nadine Wiesmann
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University Medical Center Mainz, Langenbeckstrasse 1, 55131, Mainz, Germany.,Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery - Plastic Surgery, University Medical Center Mainz, Langenbeckstrasse 1, 55131, Mainz, Germany
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Smith AJ. Guidelines for planning and conducting high-quality research and testing on animals. Lab Anim Res 2020; 36:21. [PMID: 32665911 PMCID: PMC7348107 DOI: 10.1186/s42826-020-00054-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
There are important scientific, legal and ethical reasons for optimising the quality of animal research and testing. Concerns about the reproducibility and translatability of animal studies are now being voiced not only by those opposed to animal use, but also by scientists themselves. Many of the attempts to improve reproducibility have, until recently, focused on ways in which the reporting of animal studies can be improved. Many reporting guidelines have been written. Better reporting cannot, however, improve the quality of work that has already been carried out - for this purpose better planning is required. Planning animal studies should involve close collaboration with the animal facility where the work is to be performed, from as early a stage as possible. In this way, weaknesses in the protocol will be detected and changes can be made before it is too late. Improved planning must focus on more than the "mathematical" elements of experimental design such as randomisation, blinding and statistical methods. This should include focus on practical details such as the standard of the facility, any need for education and training, and all the factors which can improve animal welfare. The PREPARE (Planning Research and Experimental Procedures on Animals: Recommendations for Excellence) checklist was developed to help scientists be more aware of all the issues which may affect their experiments. The checklist is supported by comprehensive webpages containing more information, with links to the latest resources that have been developed for each topic on the list.
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Smith AJ, Lilley E. The Role of the Three Rs in Improving the Planning and Reproducibility of Animal Experiments. Animals (Basel) 2019; 9:E975. [PMID: 31739641 PMCID: PMC6912437 DOI: 10.3390/ani9110975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Revised: 11/11/2019] [Accepted: 11/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Training in the design of animal experiments focuses all too often on those aspects which can be approached mathematically, such as the number of animals needed to deliver a robust result, allocation of group size, and techniques such as randomization, blocking and statistical analysis. Important as they are, these are only a small part of the process of planning animal experiments. Additional key elements include refinements of housing, husbandry and procedures, health and safety, and attention at all stages to animal welfare. Advances in technology and laboratory animal science have led to improvements in care and husbandry, better provision of anesthetics and analgesics, refined methods of drug administration, greater competence in welfare assessment and application of humane endpoints. These improvements require continual dialogue between scientists, facility managers and technical staff, a practice that is a key feature of what has become known as the culture of care. This embodies a commitment to improving animal welfare, scientific quality, staff care and transparency for all stakeholders. Attention to both the physical and mental health of all those directly or indirectly involved in animal research is now an important part of the process of planning and conducting animal experiments. Efforts during the last 30 years to increase the internal and external validity of animal experiments have tended to concentrate on the production of guidelines to improve the quality of reporting animal experiments, rather than for planning them. Recently, comprehensive guidelines for planning animal studies have been published, to redress this imbalance. These will be described in this paper. Endorsement of this overarching influence of the Three R concept, by all the stakeholders, will not only reduce animal numbers and improve animal welfare, but also lead to more reliable and reproducible research which should improve translation of pre-clinical studies into tangible clinical benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian J. Smith
- Norecopa, c/o Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, 0106 Oslo, Norway
| | - Elliot Lilley
- Science Group, Research Animals Department, RSPCA, Wilberforce Way, Southwater, West Sussex RH13 9RS, UK;
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5
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Minimum Information in In Vivo Research. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2019; 257:197-222. [PMID: 31541320 DOI: 10.1007/164_2019_285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/17/2023]
Abstract
Data quality, reproducibility and reliability are a matter of concern in many scientific fields including biomedical research. Robust, reproducible data and scientific rigour form the foundation on which future studies are built and determine the pace of knowledge gain and the time needed to develop new and innovative drugs that provide benefit to patients. Critical to the attainment of this is the precise and transparent reporting of data. In the current chapter, we will describe literature highlighting factors that constitute the minimum information that is needed to be included in the reporting of in vivo research. The main part of the chapter will focus on the minimum information that is essential for reporting in a scientific publication. In addition, we will present a table distinguishing information necessary to be recorded in a laboratory notebook or another form of internal protocols versus information that should be reported in a paper. We will use examples from the behavioural literature, in vivo studies where the use of anaesthetics and analgesics are used and finally ex vivo studies including histological evaluations and biochemical assays.
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Ellis SLH, Riemer S, Thompson H, Burman OHP. Assessing the External Validity of Successive Negative Contrast - Implications for Animal Welfare. J APPL ANIM WELF SCI 2019; 23:54-61. [PMID: 30694088 DOI: 10.1080/10888705.2019.1572509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
When unexpectedly switched from a preferred to a less-preferred food reward, non-human animals may decrease consumption below that when only receiving the less-preferred reward - a successive negative contrast (SNC) effect. SNC has been proposed as an animal welfare indicator, however, to be effective it should show external validity; being demonstrable outside of highly standardized laboratory settings. We therefore investigated whether the SNC effect typically shown in laboratory rats was observed in owned (pet) rats from heterogeneous non-laboratory environments. Subjects (N = 14) were tested in a consummatory SNC paradigm with solid food rewards. "Shifted" rats received a high-value reward for 10 days (pre-shift), a low-value reward for six days (post-shift), then one additional day of high-value reward (re-shift). "Unshifted" rats always received the same low-value reward. "Shifted" rats consumed more food during pre-shift and re-shift trials, but ate less of the low-value food than "unshifted" animals in the post-shift trials - a SNC effect. This confirms the external validity of the SNC paradigm, extending reproducibility to outside the laboratory, indicating translatability across contexts, thus enhancing its potential use as a welfare indicator.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah L H Ellis
- Animal Behaviour, Cognition and Welfare Research Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK
| | - Stefanie Riemer
- Animal Behaviour, Cognition and Welfare Research Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK.,Division of Animal Welfare, VPH Institute, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Hannah Thompson
- Animal Behaviour, Cognition and Welfare Research Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK
| | - Oliver H P Burman
- Animal Behaviour, Cognition and Welfare Research Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK
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Smith AJ, Clutton RE, Lilley E, Hansen KEA, Brattelid T. PREPARE: guidelines for planning animal research and testing. Lab Anim 2018; 52:135-141. [PMID: 28771074 PMCID: PMC5862319 DOI: 10.1177/0023677217724823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 285] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2017] [Accepted: 06/27/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
There is widespread concern about the quality, reproducibility and translatability of studies involving research animals. Although there are a number of reporting guidelines available, there is very little overarching guidance on how to plan animal experiments, despite the fact that this is the logical place to start ensuring quality. In this paper we present the PREPARE guidelines: Planning Research and Experimental Procedures on Animals: Recommendations for Excellence. PREPARE covers the three broad areas which determine the quality of the preparation for animal studies: formulation, dialogue between scientists and the animal facility, and quality control of the various components in the study. Some topics overlap and the PREPARE checklist should be adapted to suit specific needs, for example in field research. Advice on use of the checklist is available on the Norecopa website, with links to guidelines for animal research and testing, at https://norecopa.no/PREPARE .
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian J Smith
- Norecopa, c/o Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750, Sentrum, Oslo, Norway
| | - R Eddie Clutton
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Easter Bush, Midlothian, UK
| | - Elliot Lilley
- Research Animals Department, Science Group, RSPCA, Southwater, Horsham, West Sussex, UK
| | - Kristine E Aa Hansen
- Section of Experimental Biomedicine, Department of Production Animal Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Trond Brattelid
- Division for Research Management and External Funding, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Bergen, Norway
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Parker MO. Adult vertebrate behavioural aquatic toxicology: Reliability and validity. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2016; 170:323-329. [PMID: 26358137 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2015.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Revised: 08/27/2015] [Accepted: 09/01/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Current advances in the ability to assay adult aquatic vertebrate behaviour are potentially very useful to aquatic toxicologists wishing to characterise the effects of pollutants on behaviour, cognition or neurodevelopment. This review considers two specific challenges faced by researchers wishing to exploit these technologies: maximising reliability and validity. It will suggest two behavioural procedures, with the potential for automation and high-throughput implementation, which can be used to measure social cohesion and anxiety, two areas of interest in behavioural aquatic toxicology. In addition, the review will make recommendations about how these procedures (and others) could be carried out to maximise reliability and validity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew O Parker
- School of Health Sciences and Social Work, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK.
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Abstract
In this article, we refer to an original opinion paper written by Prof. Frank Beach in 1950 ("The Snark was a Boojum"). In his manuscript, Beach explicitly criticised the field of comparative psychology because of the disparity between the original understanding of comparativeness and its practical overly specialised implementation. Specialisation encompassed both experimental species (rats accounted for 70% of all subjects) and test paradigms (dominated by conditioning/learning experiments). Herein, we attempt to evaluate the extent to which these considerations apply to current behavioural neuroscience. Such evaluation is particularly interesting in the context of "translational research" that has recently gained growing attention. As a community, we believe that preclinical findings are intended to inform clinical practice at the level of therapies and knowledge advancements. Yet, limited reproducibility of experimental results and failures to translate preclinical research into clinical trial sindicate that these expectations are not entirely fulfilled. Theoretical considerations suggest that, before concluding that a given phenomenon is of relevance to our species, it should be observed in more than a single experimental model (be it an animal strain or species) and tested in more than a single standardized test battery. Yet, current approaches appear limited in terms of variability and overspecialised in terms of operative procedures. Specifically, as in 1950, rodents (mice instead of rats) still constitute the vast majority of animal species investigated. Additionally, the scientific community strives to homogenise experimental test strategies, thereby not only limiting the generalizability of the findings, but also working against the design of innovative approaches. Finally, we discuss the importance of evolutionary-adaptive considerations within the field of laboratory research. Specifically, resting upon empirical evidence indicating that developing individuals adjust their long-term phenotype according to early environmental demands, we propose that current rearing and housing standards do not adequately prepare experimental subjects to their actual adult environments. Specifically, while the adult life of a laboratory animal is characterized by frequent stimulations and challenges, the neonatal life is dominated by quietness and stability. We suggest that such form of mismatch may remarkably influence the reproducibility and reliability of experimental findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Macrì
- Section of Behavioural Neuroscience, Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161, Roma, Italy
| | - S Helene Richter
- Department of Behavioural Biology, Institute of Neuro and Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, Badestraße 13, 48149 Münster, Germany
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Olaku OO, Ojukwu MO, Zia FZ, White JD. The Role of Grape Seed Extract in the Treatment of Chemo/Radiotherapy Induced Toxicity: A Systematic Review of Preclinical Studies. Nutr Cancer 2015; 67:730-40. [PMID: 25880972 DOI: 10.1080/01635581.2015.1029639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Grapes are one of the most consumed fruits in the world and are rich in polyphenols. Grape seed proanthocyanidins (GSP) have demonstrated chemopreventive and/or chemotherapeutic effects in various cancer cell cultures and animal models. The clinical efficacy of chemotherapy is often limited by its adverse effects. Several studies show that reactive oxygen species mediate the cardiotoxicity and neurotoxicity induced by various cancer chemotherapeutic agents. This implies that concomitant administration of antioxidants may prevent these adverse effects. The review was carried out in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines. An electronic search strategy in Medline and Embase databases was conducted. Of the 41 studies reviewed, 27 studied GSP while the remainder (14) studied grape seed or skin extracts (GSE). All the studies were published in English, except 2 in Chinese. A significant percentage (34%) of the studies we reviewed assessed the effect of GSE or GSP on cardiotoxicity induced by chemotherapy. Doxorubicin was the most common chemotherapeutic drug studied followed by cisplatin. Research studies that assessed the effect of GSE or GSP on radiation treatment accounted for 22% of the articles reviewed. GSE/GSP ameliorates some of the cytotoxic effects on normal cells/tissues induced by chemo/radiotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oluwadamilola O Olaku
- a Office of Cancer Complementary and Alternative Medicine, National Cancer Institute , Bethesda , Maryland , USA and Kelly Services , Rockville , Maryland , USA
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11
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Kilkenny C, Browne WJ, Cuthill IC, Emerson M, Altman DG. Improving Bioscience Research Reporting: The ARRIVE Guidelines for Reporting Animal Research. Animals (Basel) 2014. [PMCID: PMC4494303 DOI: 10.3390/ani4010035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In the last decade the number of bioscience journals has increased enormously, with many filling specialised niches reflecting new disciplines and technologies. The emergence of open-access journals has revolutionised the publication process, maximising the availability of research data. Nevertheless, a wealth of evidence shows that across many areas, the reporting of biomedical research is often inadequate, leading to the view that even if the science is sound, in many cases the publications themselves are not “fit for purpose”, meaning that incomplete reporting of relevant information effectively renders many publications of limited value as instruments to inform policy or clinical and scientific practice [1–21]. A recent review of clinical research showed that there is considerable cumulative waste of financial resources at all stages of the research process, including as a result of publications that are unusable due to poor reporting [22]. It is unlikely that this issue is confined to clinical research [2–14,16–20].
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Affiliation(s)
- Carol Kilkenny
- The National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research, London, UK
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail:
| | | | - Innes C. Cuthill
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Michael Emerson
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK
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Lee JIL, Shin JS, Lee JE, Jung WY, Lee G, Kim MS, Park CG, Kim SJ. Reference values of hematology, chemistry, electrolytes, blood gas, coagulation time, and urinalysis in the Chinese rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Xenotransplantation 2013; 19:244-8. [PMID: 22909137 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3089.2012.00713.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Due to increasing preclinical study using the rhesus monkeys, the physiological data of these monkeys are very important for the objective evaluation of experimental results. Here, we report the physiological values of the Chinese rhesus monkeys acclimated under a well-controlled laboratory environment. METHODS Seventy healthy rhesus monkeys of both genders (29 males and 41 females) were used in this study. Available data on hematology, serum biochemistry, electrolytes, blood gas, coagulation time, urinalysis, water consumption, urine volume, and body weight were examined. RESULTS The lymphocyte values were 1.5-2.5 times higher than the neutrophil values in both genders. In serum biochemistry, there was no significant difference between the two genders. Interestingly, the values of alkaline phosphatase from the monkeys were very high. According to isoenzyme analysis, the percentage of alkaline phosphatase that originated from the bone was 60%, and this value was significantly higher than that from the liver (39%, P = 0.020). CONCLUSION Physiological data are very important parameters that can be directly and indirectly related to organ function (e.g. islet, kidney, liver, heart, etc.) in the transplantation model. In this respect, our data constitute valuable references for preclinical study using the Chinese rhesus monkeys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae-I L Lee
- Xenotransplantation Research Center, Biomedical Research Institute, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, South Korea
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Improving bioscience research reporting: the ARRIVE guidelines for reporting animal research. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2012; 20:256-60. [PMID: 22424462 DOI: 10.1016/j.joca.2012.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 400] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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Kilkenny C, Browne WJ, Cuthill IC, Emerson M, Altman DG. Improving bioscience research reporting: The ARRIVE guidelines for reporting animal research. J Pharmacol Pharmacother 2011; 1:94-9. [PMID: 21350617 PMCID: PMC3043335 DOI: 10.4103/0976-500x.72351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 623] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Carol Kilkenny
- The National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research, London, United Kingdom
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15
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Richter SH, Garner JP, Zipser B, Lewejohann L, Sachser N, Touma C, Schindler B, Chourbaji S, Brandwein C, Gass P, van Stipdonk N, van der Harst J, Spruijt B, Võikar V, Wolfer DP, Würbel H. Effect of population heterogenization on the reproducibility of mouse behavior: a multi-laboratory study. PLoS One 2011; 6:e16461. [PMID: 21305027 PMCID: PMC3031565 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0016461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2010] [Accepted: 12/17/2010] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
In animal experiments, animals, husbandry and test procedures are traditionally standardized to maximize test sensitivity and minimize animal use, assuming that this will also guarantee reproducibility. However, by reducing within-experiment variation, standardization may limit inference to the specific experimental conditions. Indeed, we have recently shown in mice that standardization may generate spurious results in behavioral tests, accounting for poor reproducibility, and that this can be avoided by population heterogenization through systematic variation of experimental conditions. Here, we examined whether a simple form of heterogenization effectively improves reproducibility of test results in a multi-laboratory situation. Each of six laboratories independently ordered 64 female mice of two inbred strains (C57BL/6NCrl, DBA/2NCrl) and examined them for strain differences in five commonly used behavioral tests under two different experimental designs. In the standardized design, experimental conditions were standardized as much as possible in each laboratory, while they were systematically varied with respect to the animals' test age and cage enrichment in the heterogenized design. Although heterogenization tended to improve reproducibility by increasing within-experiment variation relative to between-experiment variation, the effect was too weak to account for the large variation between laboratories. However, our findings confirm the potential of systematic heterogenization for improving reproducibility of animal experiments and highlight the need for effective and practicable heterogenization strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. Helene Richter
- Animal Models in Psychiatry, Central Institute of Mental Health (CIMH), Mannheim, Germany
- Animal Welfare and Ethology, University of Giessen, Giessen, Germany
- Behavioural Biology, University of Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - Joseph P. Garner
- Animal Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Benjamin Zipser
- Behavioural Biology, University of Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - Lars Lewejohann
- Behavioural Biology, University of Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - Norbert Sachser
- Behavioural Biology, University of Muenster, Muenster, Germany
| | - Chadi Touma
- Psychoneuroendocrinology, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - Britta Schindler
- Psychoneuroendocrinology, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - Sabine Chourbaji
- Animal Models in Psychiatry, Central Institute of Mental Health (CIMH), Mannheim, Germany
| | - Christiane Brandwein
- Animal Models in Psychiatry, Central Institute of Mental Health (CIMH), Mannheim, Germany
| | - Peter Gass
- Animal Models in Psychiatry, Central Institute of Mental Health (CIMH), Mannheim, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Vootele Võikar
- Neuroscience Center, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - David P. Wolfer
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Hanno Würbel
- Animal Welfare and Ethology, University of Giessen, Giessen, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Josef van der Staay F, Arndt SS, Nordquist RE. The standardization-generalization dilemma: a way out. GENES BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR 2010; 9:849-55. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1601-183x.2010.00628.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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17
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Kilkenny C, Browne WJ, Cuthill IC, Emerson M, Altman DG. Improving bioscience research reporting: the ARRIVE guidelines for reporting animal research. PLoS Biol 2010; 8:e1000412. [PMID: 20613859 PMCID: PMC2893951 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1000412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5230] [Impact Index Per Article: 373.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Carol Kilkenny
- The National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research, London, United Kingdom.
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18
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Kilkenny C, Parsons N, Kadyszewski E, Festing MFW, Cuthill IC, Fry D, Hutton J, Altman DG. Survey of the quality of experimental design, statistical analysis and reporting of research using animals. PLoS One 2009; 4:e7824. [PMID: 19956596 PMCID: PMC2779358 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0007824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 543] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2009] [Accepted: 10/15/2009] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
For scientific, ethical and economic reasons, experiments involving animals should be appropriately designed, correctly analysed and transparently reported. This increases the scientific validity of the results, and maximises the knowledge gained from each experiment. A minimum amount of relevant information must be included in scientific publications to ensure that the methods and results of a study can be reviewed, analysed and repeated. Omitting essential information can raise scientific and ethical concerns. We report the findings of a systematic survey of reporting, experimental design and statistical analysis in published biomedical research using laboratory animals. Medline and EMBASE were searched for studies reporting research on live rats, mice and non-human primates carried out in UK and US publicly funded research establishments. Detailed information was collected from 271 publications, about the objective or hypothesis of the study, the number, sex, age and/or weight of animals used, and experimental and statistical methods. Only 59% of the studies stated the hypothesis or objective of the study and the number and characteristics of the animals used. Appropriate and efficient experimental design is a critical component of high-quality science. Most of the papers surveyed did not use randomisation (87%) or blinding (86%), to reduce bias in animal selection and outcome assessment. Only 70% of the publications that used statistical methods described their methods and presented the results with a measure of error or variability. This survey has identified a number of issues that need to be addressed in order to improve experimental design and reporting in publications describing research using animals. Scientific publication is a powerful and important source of information; the authors of scientific publications therefore have a responsibility to describe their methods and results comprehensively, accurately and transparently, and peer reviewers and journal editors share the responsibility to ensure that published studies fulfil these criteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carol Kilkenny
- The National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research, London, United Kingdom.
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Richter SH, Garner JP, Würbel H. Environmental standardization: cure or cause of poor reproducibility in animal experiments? Nat Methods 2009; 6:257-61. [PMID: 19333241 DOI: 10.1038/nmeth.1312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 265] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
It is widely believed that environmental standardization is the best way to guarantee reproducible results in animal experiments. However, mounting evidence indicates that even subtle differences in laboratory or test conditions can lead to conflicting test outcomes. Because experimental treatments may interact with environmental conditions, experiments conducted under highly standardized conditions may reveal local 'truths' with little external validity. We review this hypothesis here and present a proof of principle based on data from a multilaboratory study on behavioral differences between inbred mouse strains. Our findings suggest that environmental standardization is a cause of, rather than a cure for, poor reproducibility of experimental outcomes. Environmental standardization can contribute to spurious and conflicting findings in the literature and unnecessary animal use. This conclusion calls for research into practicable and effective ways of systematic environmental heterogenization to attenuate these scientific, economic and ethical costs.
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van der Staay FJ, Arndt SS, Nordquist RE. Evaluation of animal models of neurobehavioral disorders. BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN FUNCTIONS : BBF 2009; 5:11. [PMID: 19243583 PMCID: PMC2669803 DOI: 10.1186/1744-9081-5-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2008] [Accepted: 02/25/2009] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Animal models play a central role in all areas of biomedical research. The process of animal model building, development and evaluation has rarely been addressed systematically, despite the long history of using animal models in the investigation of neuropsychiatric disorders and behavioral dysfunctions. An iterative, multi-stage trajectory for developing animal models and assessing their quality is proposed. The process starts with defining the purpose(s) of the model, preferentially based on hypotheses about brain-behavior relationships. Then, the model is developed and tested. The evaluation of the model takes scientific and ethical criteria into consideration.Model development requires a multidisciplinary approach. Preclinical and clinical experts should establish a set of scientific criteria, which a model must meet. The scientific evaluation consists of assessing the replicability/reliability, predictive, construct and external validity/generalizability, and relevance of the model. We emphasize the role of (systematic and extended) replications in the course of the validation process. One may apply a multiple-tiered 'replication battery' to estimate the reliability/replicability, validity, and generalizability of result.Compromised welfare is inherent in many deficiency models in animals. Unfortunately, 'animal welfare' is a vaguely defined concept, making it difficult to establish exact evaluation criteria. Weighing the animal's welfare and considerations as to whether action is indicated to reduce the discomfort must accompany the scientific evaluation at any stage of the model building and evaluation process. Animal model building should be discontinued if the model does not meet the preset scientific criteria, or when animal welfare is severely compromised. The application of the evaluation procedure is exemplified using the rat with neonatal hippocampal lesion as a proposed model of schizophrenia.In a manner congruent to that for improving animal models, guided by the procedure expounded upon in this paper, the developmental and evaluation procedure itself may be improved by careful definition of the purpose(s) of a model and by defining better evaluation criteria, based on the proposed use of the model.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Josef van der Staay
- Program 'Emotion and Cognition', Department of Farm Animal Health, Veterinary Faculty, Utrecht University, PO Box 80166, 3508 TD Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Saskia S Arndt
- Division of Laboratory Animal Science, Department of Animals, Science and Society, Veterinary Faculty, Utrecht University, the Netherlands
| | - Rebecca E Nordquist
- Program 'Emotion and Cognition', Department of Farm Animal Health, Veterinary Faculty, Utrecht University, PO Box 80166, 3508 TD Utrecht, the Netherlands
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Verwer CM, van der Ven LTM, van den Bos R, Hendriksen CFM. Effects of housing condition on experimental outcome in a reproduction toxicity study. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2007; 48:184-93. [PMID: 17507125 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2007.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
In most toxicity studies single housing is still preferred, as social stress is believed to have an effect on experimental outcome through interaction with the toxic compound or by increasing variation. There are also arguments that single housing will have a similar effect. In this study the qualitative and quantitative effects of single- and social housing of rats has been investigated on immune- and endocrine responses, histopathology and body- and organ weights in a one-generation endocrine disrupter study (OECD 415) in rats exposed to tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA). The results of this study show that differences in parameters between the housing conditions were rarely noted. Striking results of the study are that in several parameters significant differences were noted in the un-dosed control group in single versus group housed animals, meaning that TBBPA can mask or enhance housing effects, or vice versa. In one case single housing altered the effect of the toxic compound. Depending on the endpoints of the study, the type of housing condition must be taken into consideration as findings like these could have great implications for the interpretation and validity of results from toxicological assays and the number of animals needed to detect significant effects of toxic compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia M Verwer
- Utrecht University, Department of Animals, Science & Society, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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22
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Abstract
We assessed the use of nonhuman primates and nonhuman primate biological material in research by reviewing studies published in 2001 in peer-reviewed journals. The number and species of primates used, the origin of the animals, the type of study, the area of research of the investigation, and the location at which the research was performed were tabulated. Additionally, factors related to the animals that may have affected the outcome of the experiments were recorded. A total of 2,937 articles involving 4,411 studies that employed nonhuman primates or nonhuman primate biological material were identified and analyzed. More than 41,000 animals were represented in the studies published in 2001. In the 14% of studies for which re-use could be determined, 69% involved animals that had been used in previous experiments. Published studies most commonly used nonhuman primates or nonhuman primate biological material from the species Chlorocebus aethiops (19%), Macaca mulatta (18%), M. fascicularis (9%), and Papio spp. (6%). Of these studies, 54% were classified as in vitro studies, 14% as noninvasive, 30% as chronic, and 1% were considered acute. Nonhuman primates were primarily used in research areas in which they appear to be the most appropriate models for humans. The most common areas of research were microbiology (including HIV/AIDS (26%)), neuroscience (19%), and biochemistry/chemistry (12%). Most (84%) of the primate research published in 2001 was conducted in North America, Europe, and Japan. The animals and conditions under which they were housed and used were rarely described. Although it is estimated that nonhuman primates account for an extremely small fraction of all animals used in research, their special status makes it important to report the many husbandry and environmental factors that influence the research results generated. This analysis has identified that editors rarely require authors to provide comprehensive information concerning the subjects (e.g., their origin), treatment conditions, and experimental procedures utilized in the studies they publish. The present analysis addresses the use of primates for research, including the effects of a shortage of suitable nonhuman primate subjects in many research areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans-Erik Carlsson
- Department of Neuroscience, Division of Comparative Medicine, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
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