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Qiu Y, Yan J, Yue A, Lu Z, Tan J, Guo H, Ding Y, Lyu F, Fu Y. A comprehensive review of biodetoxification of trichothecenes: Mechanisms, limitations and novel strategies. Food Res Int 2024; 184:114275. [PMID: 38609252 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2024.114275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Revised: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
Trichothecenes are Fusarium mycotoxins with sesquiterpenoid structure, which are widely occurred in grains. Due to high efficiency and environmental friendliness, biological detoxification methods have been of great interest to treat this global food and feed safety concern. This review summarized the biological detoxification methods of trichothecenes from three aspects, biosorption, biotransformation and biotherapy. The detoxification efficiency, characteristics, mechanisms and limitations of different strategies were discussed in detail. Computer-aided design will bring a new research paradigm for more efficient discovery of biodetoxifier. Integrating different detoxification approaches assisted with computational tools will become a promising research direction in the future, which will help to maximize the detoxification effect, or provide precise detoxification programs for the coexistence of various toxins at different levels in actual production. In addition, technical and regulatory issues in practical application were also discussed. These findings contribute to the exploration of efficient, applicable and sustainable methods for trichothecenes detoxification, ensuring the safety of food and feed to reduce the deleterious effects of trichothecenes on humans and animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Qiu
- College of Food Science and Technology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China; Tech Bank Food Co Ltd, Yuyao City, Zhejiang 315400, China
| | - Jiaping Yan
- College of Food Science and Technology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Aodong Yue
- College of Food Science and Technology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Zhongchao Lu
- College of Food Science and Technology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Jianzhuang Tan
- Tech Bank Food Co Ltd, Yuyao City, Zhejiang 315400, China
| | - Hong Guo
- College of Food Science and Technology, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Yuting Ding
- College of Food Science and Technology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Fei Lyu
- College of Food Science and Technology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China.
| | - Yan Fu
- Tech Bank Food Co Ltd, Yuyao City, Zhejiang 315400, China
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2
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Dai C, Das Gupta S, Wang Z, Jiang H, Velkov T, Shen J. T-2 toxin and its cardiotoxicity: New insights on the molecular mechanisms and therapeutic implications. Food Chem Toxicol 2022; 167:113262. [PMID: 35792220 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2022.113262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Revised: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 06/24/2022] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
T-2 toxin is one of the most toxic and common trichothecene mycotoxins, and can cause various cardiovascular diseases. In this review, we summarized the current knowledge-base and challenges as it relates to T-2 toxin related cardiotoxicity. The molecular mechanisms and potential treatment approaches were also discussed. Pathologically, T-2 toxin-induced cardiac toxicity is characterized by cell injury and death in cardiomyocyte, increased capillary permeability, necrosis of cardiomyocyte, hemorrhage, and the infiltration of inflammatory cells in the heart. T-2 toxin exposure can cause cardiac fibrosis and finally lead to cardiac dysfunction. Mechanistically, T-2 toxin exposure-induced cardiac damage involves the production of ROS, mitochondrial dysfunction, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-γ) signaling pathway, endoplasmic reticulum (ER stress), transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1)/smad family member 2/3 (Smad2/3) signaling pathway, and autophagy and inflammatory responses. Antioxidant supplementation (e.g., catalase, vitamin C, and selenium), induction of autophagy (e.g., rapamycin), blockade of inflammatory signaling (e.g., methylprednisolone) or treatment with PPAR-γ agonists (e.g., pioglitazone) may provide protective effects against these detrimental cardiac effects caused by T-2 toxin. We believe that our review provides new insights in understanding T-2 toxin exposure-induced cardiotoxicity and fuels effective prevention and treatment strategies against this important food-borne toxin-induced health problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chongshan Dai
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, No.2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Beijing, 100193, PR China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Detection Technology for Animal-Derived Food Safety, Beijing, 100193, PR China.
| | - Subhajit Das Gupta
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, 75230, USA
| | - Zhanhui Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, No.2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Beijing, 100193, PR China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Detection Technology for Animal-Derived Food Safety, Beijing, 100193, PR China
| | - Haiyang Jiang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, No.2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Beijing, 100193, PR China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Detection Technology for Animal-Derived Food Safety, Beijing, 100193, PR China
| | - Tony Velkov
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Jianzhong Shen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, No.2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Beijing, 100193, PR China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Detection Technology for Animal-Derived Food Safety, Beijing, 100193, PR China
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3
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Rahman S, Sharma AK, Singh ND, Prawez S. Immunopathological effects of experimental T-2 mycotoxicosis in Wistar rats. Hum Exp Toxicol 2020; 40:772-790. [PMID: 33111562 DOI: 10.1177/0960327120968852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
It is well known that T-2 toxin has cytotoxic radiomimetic like effects on the immune system. Because of scant research data demonstrating the chronic effects of low doses of the T-2 toxin on humoral and cellular responses in rats, the present experiment was undertaken. The animals were divided into four groups, namely, group I (0.5 ppm), group II (0.75 ppm) and group III (1.0 ppm) and group IV (control) were given toxin-free diet for 12 weeks and eight animals each were sacrificed at 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12-week of the experimental period. The humoral immune response was evaluated based on hemagglutination test (HA), and levels of serum immunoglobulins (IgA, IgG, IgM) while the cell-mediated immune response was evaluated by delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) response to ovalbumin, lymphocyte stimulation index, analyses of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes and mRNA expression levels of selected cytokines like IL-2, IFN-γ, IL-4 and IL-10 by quantitative Real-time PCR in experimental groups. T-2 treatment caused suppression in both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses as evidenced by a decrease in all these parameters in toxin fed animals compared to the control in the dose and duration-dependent manner. This dose-dependent effect on the immune system has been further reflected largely by the depletion of lymphocytes from lymphoid organs as observed histopathologically in the spleen, thymus, and Peyer's patches in the present study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shafiqur Rahman
- Division of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, SKUAST-J, Jammu, Jammu & Kashmir, India
| | - Anil Kumar Sharma
- Division of Pathology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Nittin Dev Singh
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Science, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India
| | - Shahid Prawez
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, RGSC, 30114Banaras Hindu University, Barkachha, Uttar Pradesh, India
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Steinkellner H, Binaglia M, Dall'Asta C, Gutleb AC, Metzler M, Oswald IP, Parent-Massin D, Alexander J. Combined hazard assessment of mycotoxins and their modified forms applying relative potency factors: Zearalenone and T2/HT2 toxin. Food Chem Toxicol 2019; 131:110599. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2019.110599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Revised: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 06/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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The Effects of Deoxynivalenol (DON) on the Gut Microbiota, Morphology and Immune System of Chicken – A Review. ANNALS OF ANIMAL SCIENCE 2019. [DOI: 10.2478/aoas-2019-0013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Feed contamination is a major cause of diseases outbreak in the poultry industry. There is a direct relationship between feeding, the intestinal microbiota and how the immune system responds to disease infestation. Cereals which form the bulk of poultry feed are mostly contaminated by mycotoxins of Fusarium origin. Adequate knowledge of mycotoxins and their effects on animals is necessary. Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a major contaminant of poultry feed. DON has the ability to bind with a large number of eukaryotic ribosomal subunits because of the presence of an epoxide group and these disrupt the activity of peptidyl transferase and the elongation or shortening of peptide chains. Deoxynivalenol has varying effect ranging from acute, overt diseases with high morbidity and death to chronic disease, decreased resistance to pathogens and reduced animal productivity. Deoxynivalenol also impairs the intestinal morphology, nutrient absorption, barrier function, and the innate immune response in chickens. This review highlights the impacts of deoxynivalenol on the immune system, intestinal microbiota composition and the morphology of chicken.
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Deng Y, Wang Y, Sun L, Lu P, Wang R, Ye L, Xu D, Ye R, Liu Y, Bi S, Gooneratne R. Biotransformation enzyme activities and phase I metabolites analysis in Litopenaeus vannamei following intramuscular administration of T-2 toxin. Drug Chem Toxicol 2017; 41:113-122. [DOI: 10.1080/01480545.2017.1320407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yijia Deng
- College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Safety, Key Laboratory of Advanced Processing of Aquatic Products of Guangdong Higher Education Institution, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Yaling Wang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Safety, Key Laboratory of Advanced Processing of Aquatic Products of Guangdong Higher Education Institution, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Lijun Sun
- College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Safety, Key Laboratory of Advanced Processing of Aquatic Products of Guangdong Higher Education Institution, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Pengli Lu
- College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Safety, Key Laboratory of Advanced Processing of Aquatic Products of Guangdong Higher Education Institution, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Rundong Wang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Safety, Key Laboratory of Advanced Processing of Aquatic Products of Guangdong Higher Education Institution, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Lin Ye
- College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Safety, Key Laboratory of Advanced Processing of Aquatic Products of Guangdong Higher Education Institution, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Defeng Xu
- College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Safety, Key Laboratory of Advanced Processing of Aquatic Products of Guangdong Higher Education Institution, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Riying Ye
- College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Safety, Key Laboratory of Advanced Processing of Aquatic Products of Guangdong Higher Education Institution, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Ying Liu
- College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Safety, Key Laboratory of Advanced Processing of Aquatic Products of Guangdong Higher Education Institution, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Siyuan Bi
- Shenzhen Bioeasy Biotechnologies Co, Shenzhen, China
| | - Ravi Gooneratne
- Department of Wine, Food and Molecular Biosciences, Centre for Food Research and Innovation, Lincoln University, Lincoln, New Zealand
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7
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Li Y, Zhang J, Mao X, Wu Y, Liu G, Song L, Li Y, Yang J, You Y, Cao X. High-sensitivity chemiluminescent immunoassay investigation and application for the detection of T-2 toxin and major metabolite HT-2 toxin. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2017; 97:818-822. [PMID: 27185279 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.7801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2016] [Revised: 04/26/2016] [Accepted: 05/11/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND T-2 toxin is a widely distributed mycotoxin in cereals. HT-2 toxin is the major metabolite, which is also a contaminant in cereals. T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin have been identified as having carcinogenic, hepatotoxic, teratogenic and immunotoxic properties. To reduce the risk of contamination, a rapid, highly sensitive and inexpensive assay for the detection is required. RESULTS In this study a high-sensitivity chemiluminescent enzyme-linked immunoassay (CL-ELISA) of T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin was developed. With the help of the chemiluminescent substrate, this protocol showed a highly sensitive character with an IC50 as low as 33.28 ng mL-1 and 27.27 ng mL-1 for T-2 and HT-2, respectively. In addition, this method had no cross-reaction with other structurally related mycotoxins. CONCLUSION These results indicated that the developed CL-ELISA could be applied for the detection of T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin in actual samples without complicated steps. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanshen Li
- College of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai 264005, P.R. China
| | - Jing Zhang
- College of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai 264005, P.R. China
| | - Xin Mao
- College of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai 264005, P.R. China
- Hua Hai Property & Casualty Insurance Co., Ltd, Yantai, Shandong 264005, P.R. China
| | - Yongtao Wu
- College of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai 264005, P.R. China
| | - Gongzhen Liu
- Shandong Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Shandong Academy of Medical Science, Jining 272033, P.R. China
| | - Liting Song
- College of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai 264005, P.R. China
| | - Yonggang Li
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory for Applied Toxicology, Hubei Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Wuhan 430079, P.R. China
| | - Jianrong Yang
- College of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai 264005, P.R. China
| | - Yanli You
- College of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai 264005, P.R. China
| | - Xuelin Cao
- Logistics University Of People's Armed Police Forced Brigade Two, Tianjin 300000, P.R. China
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Knutsen HK, Barregård L, Bignami M, Brüschweiler B, Ceccatelli S, Cottrill B, Dinovi M, Edler L, Grasl-Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom LR, Nebbia CS, Oswald I, Petersen A, Rose M, Roudot AC, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Vollmer G, Wallace H, Dall'Asta C, Gutleb A, Metzler M, Oswald I, Parent-Massin D, Binaglia M, Steinkellner H, Alexander J. Appropriateness to set a group health based guidance value for T2 and HT2 toxin and its modified forms. EFSA J 2017; 15:e04655. [PMID: 32625252 PMCID: PMC7010130 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) established a tolerable daily intake (TDI) for T2 and HT2 of 0.02 μg/kg body weight (bw) per day based on a new in vivo subchronic toxicity study in rats that confirmed that immune- and haematotoxicity are the critical effects of T2 and using a reduction in total leucocyte count as the critical endpoint. An acute reference dose (ARfD) of 0.3 μg for T2 and HT2/kg bw was established based on acute emetic events in mink. Modified forms of T2 and HT2 identified are phase I metabolites mainly formed through hydrolytic cleavage of one or more of the three ester groups of T2. Less prominent hydroxylation reactions occur predominantly at the side chain. Phase II metabolism involves conjugation with glucose, modified glucose, sulfate, feruloyl and acetyl groups. The few data on occurrence of modified forms indicate that grain products are their main source. The CONTAM Panel found it appropriate to establish a group TDI and a group ARfD for T2 and HT2 and its modified forms. Potency factors relative to T2 for the modified forms were used to account for differences in acute and chronic toxic potencies. It was assumed that conjugates (phase II metabolites of T2, HT2 and their phase I metabolites), which are not toxic per se, would be cleaved releasing their aglycones. These metabolites were assigned the relative potency factors (RPFs) of their respective aglycones. The RPFs assigned to the modified forms were all either 1 or less than 1. The uncertainties associated with the present assessment are considered as high. Using the established group, ARfD and TDI would overestimate any risk of modified T2 and HT2.
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9
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Zhang X, Wu C, Wen K, Jiang H, Shen J, Zhang S, Wang Z. Comparison of Fluorescent Microspheres and Colloidal Gold as Labels in Lateral Flow Immunochromatographic Assays for the Detection of T-2 Toxin. Molecules 2015; 21:E27. [PMID: 26729073 PMCID: PMC6273043 DOI: 10.3390/molecules21010027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2015] [Revised: 12/07/2015] [Accepted: 12/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A new highly specific and sensitive monoclonal antibody (MAb) to T-2 toxin (T-2) was produced, providing an IC50 value of 1.02 ng/mL and negligible cross-reactivity (CR) to other related mycotoxins. Based on the new MAb, a lateral-flow immunochromatographic assay (LFIA) using colloidal gold (CG) and fluorescent microspheres (FMs) as labels was proposed for T-2. Under the optimized conditions, in rapid qualitative assay, the cut-off values of the CG-LFIA were 400 μg/kg in rice and 50 μg/L in fresh milk, and the cut-off values of the FMs-LFIA were 100 μg/kg in both rice and chicken feed. For the quantitative assay with the FMs-LFIA, the limit of detection (LOD) were 0.23 μg/kg and 0.41 μg/kg in rice and chicken feed, respectively, and the average recoveries ranged from 80.2% to 100.8% with the coefficient of variation (CV) below 10.8%. In addition, we found that the CG-LFIA could tolerate the matrix effect of fresh milk better than the FMs-LFIA, while the FMs-LFIA could tolerate the matrix effect of chicken feed better than CG-LFIA under the same experimental conditions. These results provide a certain reference for the selection of appropriate labels to establish a rapid LFIA in various biological samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiya Zhang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Chao Wu
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Kai Wen
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Detection Technology for Animal-Derived Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Haiyang Jiang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
- Beijing Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Jianzhong Shen
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Detection Technology for Animal-Derived Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
- National Reference Laboratory for Veterinary Drug Residues, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Suxia Zhang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Detection Technology for Animal-Derived Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Zhanhui Wang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
- Beijing Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
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Cheli F, Giromini C, Baldi A. Mycotoxin mechanisms of action and health impact: ‘in vitro’ or ‘in vivo’ tests, that is the question. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2015. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2014.1864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to present examples of in vitro and in vivo tests for mycotoxin mechanisms of action and evaluation of health effects, with a focus on the gut environment and toxicity testing. In vivo investigations may provide information on the net effects of mycotoxins in whole animals, whereas in vitro models represent effective tools to perform simplified experiments under uniform and well-controlled conditions and a suitable alternative to in vivo animal testing providing insights not achievable with animal studies. The main limits of in vitro models are the lack of interactions with other cells and extracellular factors, lack of hormonal or immunological influences, and lack or different levels of in vitro expression of genes involved in the overall response to mycotoxins. The translation of in vitro data into meaningful in vivo effects remains an unsolved problem. The main issues to be considered are the mycotoxin concentration range in accordance with levels encountered in realistic situations, the identification of reliable biomarkers of mycotoxin toxicity, the measurement of the chronic toxicity, the evaluation of single- or multi-toxin challenge. The gastrointestinal wall is the first barrier preventing the entry of undesirable substances. The intestinal epithelium can be exposed to high concentrations of mycotoxins upon ingestion of contaminated food and the amount of mycotoxin consumed via food does not always reflect the amount available to exert toxic actions in a target organ. In vitro digestion models in combination with intestinal epithelial cells are powerful tools to screen and predict the in vivo bioavailability and digestibility of mycotoxins in contaminated food and correctly estimate health effects. In conclusion, in vitro and in vivo tests are complementary approaches for providing a more accurate picture of the health impact of mycotoxins and improved understanding and evaluation of relevant dietary exposure and risk scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- F. Cheli
- Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Trentacoste 2, 20134, Milano, Italy
| | - C. Giromini
- Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Trentacoste 2, 20134, Milano, Italy
| | - A. Baldi
- Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Trentacoste 2, 20134, Milano, Italy
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11
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Nathanail A, Varga E, Meng-Reiterer J, Bueschl C, Michlmayr H, Malachova A, Fruhmann P, Jestoi M, Peltonen K, Adam G, Lemmens M, Schuhmacher R, Berthiller F. Metabolism of the Fusarium Mycotoxins T-2 Toxin and HT-2 Toxin in Wheat. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2015; 63:7862-72. [PMID: 26278508 PMCID: PMC4570218 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b02697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2015] [Revised: 08/12/2015] [Accepted: 08/15/2015] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
To investigate the metabolic fate of HT-2 toxin (HT2) and T-2 toxin (T2) in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), an untargeted metabolomics study utilizing stable isotopic labeling and liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry was performed. In total, 11 HT2 and 12 T2 derived in planta biotransformation products were annotated putatively. In addition to previously reported mono- and diglucosylated forms of HT2, evidence for the formation of HT2-malonyl-glucoside and feruloyl-T2, as well as acetylation and deacetylation products in wheat was obtained for the first time. To monitor the kinetics of metabolite formation, a time course experiment was conducted involving the Fusarium head blight susceptible variety Remus and the resistant cultivar CM-82036. Biotransformation reactions were observed already at the earliest tested time point (6 h after treatment), and formed metabolites showed different kinetic profiles. After ripening, less than 15% of the toxins added to the plants were determined to be unmetabolized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis
V. Nathanail
- Chemistry
and Toxicology Unit, Research
and Laboratory Department, Finnish Food
Safety Authority (Evira), Mustialankatu 3, 00790 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Elisabeth Varga
- Christian
Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism
and Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences,
Vienna (BOKU), Konrad
Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Jacqueline Meng-Reiterer
- Christian
Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism
and Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences,
Vienna (BOKU), Konrad
Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
- Institute
for Biotechnology in Plant Production, IFA-Tulln,
BOKU, Konrad Lorenz Str.
20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Christoph Bueschl
- Christian
Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism
and Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences,
Vienna (BOKU), Konrad
Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Herbert Michlmayr
- Department
of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, BOKU, Konrad Lorenz Str. 24, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Alexandra Malachova
- Christian
Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism
and Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences,
Vienna (BOKU), Konrad
Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Philipp Fruhmann
- Institute
of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Vienna University
of Technology, Getreidemarkt
9/163, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Marika Jestoi
- Product Safety Unit, Control Department, Finnish Food Safety
Authority (Evira), Mustialankatu
3, 00790 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Kimmo Peltonen
- Finnish
Safety and Chemicals Agency (Tukes), Opastinsilta 12 B, 00521 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Gerhard Adam
- Department
of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, BOKU, Konrad Lorenz Str. 24, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Marc Lemmens
- Institute
for Biotechnology in Plant Production, IFA-Tulln,
BOKU, Konrad Lorenz Str.
20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Rainer Schuhmacher
- Christian
Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism
and Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences,
Vienna (BOKU), Konrad
Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Franz Berthiller
- Christian
Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism
and Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences,
Vienna (BOKU), Konrad
Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
- E-mail: . Phone: +43 2272/66280-413. Fax: +43 2272/66280-403
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Cheng G, Liu C, Wang X, Ma H, Pan Y, Huang L, Hao H, Dai M, Yuan Z. Structure-function analysis of porcine cytochrome P450 3A29 in the hydroxylation of T-2 toxin as revealed by docking and mutagenesis studies. PLoS One 2014; 9:e106769. [PMID: 25184434 PMCID: PMC4153680 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0106769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2014] [Accepted: 08/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
T-2 toxin, one of the type A trichothecenes, presents a potential hazard to human and animal health. Our previous work demonstrated that porcine cytochrome P450 3A29 (CYP3A29) played an important role in the hydroxylation of T-2 toxin. To identify amino acids involved in this metabolic process, T-2 toxin was docked into a homology model of CYP3A29 based on a crystal structure of CYP3A4 using AutoDock 4.0. Nine residues of CYP3A29, Arg105, Arg106, Phe108, Ser119, Lys212, Phe213, Phe215, Arg372 and Glu374, which were found within 5 Å around T-2 toxin were subjected to site-directed mutagenesis. In the oxidation of nifedipine, the CLint value of R106A was increased by nearly two-folds compared with the wild-type CYP3A29, while the substrate affinities and CLint values of S119A and K212A were significantly reduced. In the hydroxylation of T-2 toxin, the generation of 3′-OH-T-2 by R105A, S119A and K212A was significantly less than that by the wild-type, whereas R106A slightly increased the generation of 3′-OH-T-2. These results were further confirmed by isothermal titration calorimetry analysis, suggesting that these four residues are important in the hydroxylation of T-2 toxin and Arg105 may be a specific recognition site for the toxin. Our study suggests a possible structure-function relationship of CYP3A29 in the hydroxylation of T-2 toxin, providing with new insights into the mechanism of CYP3A enzymes in the biotransformation of T-2 toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guyue Cheng
- MOA Laboratory for Risk Assessment of Quality and Safety of Livestock and Poultry Products, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Changcun Liu
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU), MOA Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Xu Wang
- MOA Laboratory for Risk Assessment of Quality and Safety of Livestock and Poultry Products, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Hongmin Ma
- Key Laboratory of Combinatorial Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery (Ministry of Education) at the School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yuanhu Pan
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU), MOA Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Lingli Huang
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU), MOA Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Haihong Hao
- MOA Laboratory for Risk Assessment of Quality and Safety of Livestock and Poultry Products, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Menghong Dai
- MOA Laboratory for Risk Assessment of Quality and Safety of Livestock and Poultry Products, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Zonghui Yuan
- MOA Laboratory for Risk Assessment of Quality and Safety of Livestock and Poultry Products, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU), MOA Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- * E-mail:
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Li Y, Luo X, Yang S, Cao X, Wang Z, Shi W, Zhang S. High specific monoclonal antibody production and development of an ELISA method for monitoring T-2 toxin in rice. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2014; 62:1492-1497. [PMID: 24450660 DOI: 10.1021/jf404818r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
This research produced a highly-specific and sensitive anti-T-2 toxin monoclonal antibody (mAb), and developed a rapid and sensitive competitive indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method for monitoring T-2 toxin in rice. The mAb showed a negligible cross-reactivity value (CR) to most of the mycotoxins, and it could specifically bind to T-2 toxin without other mycotoxins, including HT-2 toxin (CR value at 3.08%), which exhibited a similar structure to T-2 toxin. The limit of detection (LOD) value, measured by IC10, was 5.80 μg/kg. In spiked samples, mean recoveries ranged from 72.0% to 108.5% with intraday and interday variation less than 16.8 and 13.7%. This proposed protocol was significantly confirmed by a reliable ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method and significant correlation was obtained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanshen Li
- College of Life Science, Yantai University , Yantai 264005, People's Republic of China
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14
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Yuan Y, Zhou X, Yang J, Li M, Qiu X. T-2 toxin is hydroxylated by chicken CYP3A37. Food Chem Toxicol 2013; 62:622-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2013.09.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2013] [Revised: 09/09/2013] [Accepted: 09/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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15
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Mycotoxin-degradation profile of Rhodococcus strains. Int J Food Microbiol 2013; 166:176-85. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2013] [Revised: 05/24/2013] [Accepted: 06/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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16
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Characterisation of metabolites after the microbial degradation of A- and B-trichothecenes by BBSH 797. Mycotoxin Res 2013; 16 Suppl 1:66-9. [PMID: 23605418 DOI: 10.1007/bf02942984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
This work deals with the characterisation of trichothecene metabolites after the microbial degradation by the bacterial strain BBSH 797. Besides deoxynivalenol (DON), also the degradation of other trichothecenes was investigated. In the case of nivalenol, its metabolite deepoxy nivalenol could be identified. Useful methods for the structural characterisation are GC-MS or LC-PB-MS which were used in this particular case.
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17
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The toxicological impacts of the Fusarium mycotoxin, deoxynivalenol, in poultry flocks with special reference to immunotoxicity. Toxins (Basel) 2013; 5:912-25. [PMID: 23628787 PMCID: PMC3709269 DOI: 10.3390/toxins5050912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2013] [Revised: 04/19/2013] [Accepted: 04/19/2013] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a common Fusarium toxin in poultry feed. Chickens are more resistant to the adverse impacts of deoxynivalenol (DON) compared to other species. In general, the acute form of DON mycotoxicosis rarely occurs in poultry flocks under normal conditions. However, if diets contain low levels of DON (less than 5 mg DON/kg diet), lower productivity, impaired immunity and higher susceptibility to infectious diseases can occur. The molecular mechanism of action of DON has not been completely understood. A significant influence of DON in chickens is the impairment of immunological functions. It was known that low doses of DON elevated the serum IgA levels and affected both cell-mediated and humoral immunity in animals. DON is shown to suppress the antibody response to infectious bronchitis vaccine (IBV) and to Newcastle disease virus (NDV) in broilers (10 mg DON/kg feed) and laying hens (3.5 to 14 mg of DON/kg feed), respectively. Moreover, DON (10 mg DON/kg feed) decreased tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) in the plasma of broilers. DON can severely affect the immune system and, due to its negative impact on performance and productivity, can eventually result in high economic losses to poultry producers. The present review highlights the impacts of DON intoxication on cell mediated immunity, humoral immunity, gut immunity, immune organs and pro-inflammatory cytokines in chickens.
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Weidner M, Welsch T, Hübner F, Schwerdt G, Gekle M, Humpf HU. Identification and apoptotic potential of T-2 toxin metabolites in human cells. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2012; 60:5676-5684. [PMID: 22551244 DOI: 10.1021/jf300634k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The mycotoxin T-2 toxin, produced by various Fusarium species, is a widespread contaminant of grain and grain products. Knowledge about its toxicity and metabolism in the human body is crucial for any risk assessment as T-2 toxin can be detected in processed and unprocessed food samples. Cell culture studies using cells of human origin represent a potent model system to study the metabolic fate of T-2 toxin as well as the cytotoxicity in vitro. In this study the metabolism of T-2 toxin was analyzed in a cell line derived from human colon carcinoma cells (HT-29) and primary human renal proximal tubule epithelial cells (RPTEC) using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with Fourier transformation mass spectrometry (HPLC-FTMS). Both cell types metabolized T-2 toxin to a variety of compounds. Furthermore, cell cycle analysis in RPTEC proved the apoptotic effect of T-2 toxin and its metabolites HT-2 toxin and neosolaniol in micromolar concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Weidner
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Münster, Germany
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Fang H, Wu Y, Guo J, Rong J, Ma L, Zhao Z, Zuo D, Peng S. T-2 toxin induces apoptosis in differentiated murine embryonic stem cells through reactive oxygen species-mediated mitochondrial pathway. Apoptosis 2012; 17:895-907. [DOI: 10.1007/s10495-012-0724-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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20
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Interactions between cyclodextrins and fluorescent T-2 and HT-2 toxin derivatives: a physico-chemical study. J INCL PHENOM MACRO 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s10847-012-0130-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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21
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Awad W, Ghareeb K, Dadak A, Gille L, Staniek K, Hess M, Böhm J. Genotoxic effects of deoxynivalenol in broiler chickens fed low-protein feeds. Poult Sci 2012; 91:550-5. [DOI: 10.3382/ps.2011-01742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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22
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Wu Q, Huang L, Liu Z, Yao M, Wang Y, Dai M, Yuan Z. A comparison of hepatic in vitro metabolism of T-2 toxin in rats, pigs, chickens, and carp. Xenobiotica 2011; 41:863-73. [PMID: 21745144 DOI: 10.3109/00498254.2011.593206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
T-2 toxin, a highly toxic member of the type-A trichothecenes, is produced by various Fusarium moulds that can potentially affect human health. It is strongly cytotoxic for human hematopoietic progenitors. Alimentary toxic aleukia (ATA), a disease typically associated with human, is primarily induced by T-2 toxin. A comparison of the metabolism of T-2 toxin incubated with hepatocytes of rats, piglets, chickens, and the hepatic subcellular fractions (microsomes and cytosol) of piglets, chickens, rats, and carp (common carp and grass carp) was carried out. The activities of the recombinant pig CYP3A29 on the transformation of T-2 and HT-2 toxins were preliminary studied. Metabolites were identified by novel LC/MS-IT-TOF. Qualitative similarities and differences across the species were observed. In liver microsomes, HT-2 toxin, neosolaniol (NEO), 3'-OH-T-2, and 3'-OH-HT-2 were detected in rats, chickens, and pigs. 3'-OH-HT-2 and HT-2 toxin was not detectable in common carp and grass crap, respectively. Moreover, in liver microsomes, the hydroxyl metabolites accounted for the largest percentage in carp, whereas the hydrolysis product, HT-2 toxin, was the major one for the land animals. Only hydrolysis products such as NEO and HT-2 toxin were detected in hepatocytes. Recombinant pig CYP3A29 was able to convert T-2 and HT-2 toxins to high rates of 3'-OH-T-2 and 3'-OH-HT-2, respectively. Both CYP450 and carboxylesterase enzymes have been found to play a role in the metabolism of T-2 toxin. Metabolism of T-2 toxin across species produces a similar spectrum of metabolites. Preliminary metabolic studies of carp reveal that ester hydrolysis of T-2 toxin in carp may not play as important a role as is the case with land animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinghua Wu
- MOA Key Laboratory of Food Safety Evaluation/National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU), Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, People's Republic of China
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Li Y, Wang Z, Beier RC, Shen J, De Smet D, De Saeger S, Zhang S. T-2 toxin, a trichothecene mycotoxin: review of toxicity, metabolism, and analytical methods. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2011; 59:3441-3453. [PMID: 21417259 DOI: 10.1021/jf200767q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 223] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
This review focuses on the toxicity and metabolism of T-2 toxin and analytical methods used for the determination of T-2 toxin. Among the naturally occurring trichothecenes in food and feed, T-2 toxin is a cytotoxic fungal secondary metabolite produced by various species of Fusarium. Following ingestion, T-2 toxin causes acute and chronic toxicity and induces apoptosis in the immune system and fetal tissues. T-2 toxin is usually metabolized and eliminated after ingestion, yielding more than 20 metabolites. Consequently, there is a possibility of human consumption of animal products contaminated with T-2 toxin and its metabolites. Several methods for the determination of T-2 toxin based on traditional chromatographic, immunoassay, or mass spectroscopy techniques are described. This review will contribute to a better understanding of T-2 toxin exposure in animals and humans and T-2 toxin metabolism, toxicity, and analytical methods, which may be useful in risk assessment and control of T-2 toxin exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanshen Li
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
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24
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van der Fels-Klerx H, Stratakou I. T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin in grain and grain-based commodities in Europe: occurrence, factors affecting occurrence, co-occurrence and toxicological effects. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2010. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2010.1237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This paper presents an overview of the occurrence of T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin in cereals in Europe and derived food products, factors influencing the occurrence, co-occurrence with other trichothecenes, and toxicological effects of T-2 and HT-2 in human. Of all cereals, oats showed to be most susceptible to T-2/HT-2 contamination. Particularly, oats grown in Scandinavia and UK in the period 2003-2007 were highly contaminated. This contamination has reduced in 2008 and 2009. In raw cereals, T-2 and HT-2 levels were highly correlated with each other in most instances, with the HT-2 level being two to seven times higher than the T-2 level. The toxin levels showed not to be correlated with levels of deoxynivalenol and nivalenol. The occurrence of T-2 and HT-2 in the field varied between years, regions, cereal grain varieties, sowing time, and precrop. Organically produced cereals contained lower T-2 and HT-2 levels as compared to conventionally grown cereals. Little or no effects from using fungicides was seen. Processing cereals resulted in low T-2 and HT-2 levels in food products, although oat products contained some T-2 and HT-2. The by-products from food processing, often used for animal feeding, frequently were highly contaminated. T-2 and HT-2 showed to have high acute and subacute toxicity, as they caused haematotoxic, immunotoxic, cytotoxic, and dermal effects. Carcinogenicity of T-2 and HT-2 in human has not been proven. Outbreaks of human toxicosis caused by trichothecenes, including T-2 and HT-2, have been reported. The present overview is deemed to be valuable for risk assessments at the European level, planned to be held by EFSA. It also provides directions for further research, including the ecology of the fungi responsible for T-2 and HT-2, and agronomical practices to reduce the contamination in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - I. Stratakou
- RIKILT, Wageningen UR, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE, Wageningen, the Netherlands
- Department of Toxicology, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 8000, 6700 AE Wageningen, the Netherlands
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Pestka JJ. Deoxynivalenol: mechanisms of action, human exposure, and toxicological relevance. Arch Toxicol 2010; 84:663-79. [PMID: 20798930 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-010-0579-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 670] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2010] [Accepted: 08/06/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The trichothecene mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) is produced in wheat, barley and corn following infestation by the fungus Fusarium in the field and during storage. Colloquially known as "vomitoxin" because of its emetic effects in pigs, DON has been associated with human gastroenteritis. Since DON is commonly detected in cereal foods, there are significant questions regarding the risks of acute poisoning and chronic effects posed to persons ingesting this trichothecene. A further challenge is how to best manage perceived risks without rendering critical food staples unavailable to an ever-expanding world population. In experimental animal models, acute DON poisoning causes emesis, whereas chronic low-dose exposure elicits anorexia, growth retardation, immunotoxicity as well as impaired reproduction and development resulting from maternal toxicity. Pathophysiologic effects associated with DON include altered neuroendocrine signaling, proinflammatory gene induction, disruption of the growth hormone axis, and altered gut integrity. At the cellular level, DON induces ribotoxic stress thereby disrupting macromolecule synthesis, cell signaling, differentiation, proliferation, and death. There is a need to better understand the mechanistic linkages between these early dose-dependent molecular effects and relevant pathological sequelae. Epidemiological studies are needed to determine if relationships exist between consumption of high DON levels and incidence of both gastroenteritis and potential chronic diseases. From the perspective of human health translation, a particularly exciting development is the availability of biomarkers of exposure (e.g. DON glucuronide) and effect (e.g. IGF1) now make it possible to study the relationship between DON consumption and growth retardation in susceptible human populations such as children and vegetarians. Ultimately, a fusion of basic and translational research is needed to validate or refine existing risk assessments and regulatory standards for this common mycotoxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- James J Pestka
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
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Deoxynivalenol-induced proinflammatory gene expression: mechanisms and pathological sequelae. Toxins (Basel) 2010; 2:1300-17. [PMID: 22069639 PMCID: PMC3153246 DOI: 10.3390/toxins2061300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2010] [Revised: 05/25/2010] [Accepted: 05/28/2010] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The trichothecene mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) is commonly encountered in human cereal foods throughout the world as a result of infestation of grains in the field and in storage by the fungus Fusarium. Significant questions remain regarding the risks posed to humans from acute and chronic DON ingestion, and how to manage these risks without imperiling access to nutritionally important food commodities. Modulation of the innate immune system appears particularly critical to DON's toxic effects. Specifically, DON induces activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in macrophages and monocytes, which mediate robust induction of proinflammatory gene expression-effects that can be recapitulated in intact animals. The initiating mechanisms for DON-induced ribotoxic stress response appear to involve the (1) activation of constitutive protein kinases on the damaged ribosome and (2) autophagy of the chaperone GRP78 with consequent activation of the ER stress response. Pathological sequelae resulting from chronic low dose exposure include anorexia, impaired weight gain, growth hormone dysregulation and aberrant IgA production whereas acute high dose exposure evokes gastroenteritis, emesis and a shock-like syndrome. Taken together, the capacity of DON to evoke ribotoxic stress in mononuclear phagocytes contributes significantly to its acute and chronic toxic effects in vivo. It is anticipated that these investigations will enable the identification of robust biomarkers of effect that will be applicable to epidemiological studies of the human health effects of this common mycotoxin.
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Campos FF, Johann S, Cota BB, Alves TMA, Rosa LH, Caligiorne RB, Cisalpino PS, Rosa CA, Zani CL. Antifungal activity of trichothecenes from Fusarium sp. against clinical isolates of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis. Mycoses 2010; 54:e122-9. [PMID: 20337937 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.2009.01854.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Paracoccidioidomycosis (PCM), a human mycosis caused by the dimorphic fungus Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, is a serious public health problem in several countries of Latin America. In our search we found that the crude extract of the endophytic fungus UFMGCB 551 was able to inhibit several clinical strains of P. brasiliensis, and was also active in the bioautographic assay against Cladosporium sphaerospermum. The endophytic fungus UFMGCB 551 was isolated from the plant Piptadenia adiantoides J.F. Macbr (Fabaceae). The fungus was identified as Fusarium sp. based on its macro- and micro-morphology, and on the sequence of the internally transcribed spacer regions (ITS) of its rRNA gene. The chromatographic fractionation of the fungal extract was guided by the bioautographic assay to afford three known trichothecene mycotoxins: T2-toxin (1) and a mixture of 8-n-butyrylneosolaniol (2) and 8-isobutyrylsolaniol (3). The minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of the these compounds against eleven clinical strains of P. brasiliensis were evaluated and found to be in the range between 75 and 640 nmol l(-1) for 1 and 160-640 nmol l(-1) for the mixture of 2 and 3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda Fraga Campos
- Laboratório de Química de Produtos Naturais, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.
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28
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Chemical and biological transformations for detoxification of trichothecene mycotoxins in human and animal food chains: a review. Trends Food Sci Technol 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2009.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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29
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Frankič T, Salobir J, Rezar V. The effect of vitamin E supplementation on reduction of lymphocyte DNA damage induced by T-2 toxin and deoxynivalenol in weaned pigs. Anim Feed Sci Technol 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2007.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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30
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Abstract
T-2 Toxin: Incidence and Toxicity in PoultryT-2 toxin is the most toxic type A trichothecene mycotoxin. It is the secondary metabolite of the Fusarium fungi, and is common in grain and animal feed. Toxic effects have been shown both in experimental animals and in livestock. It has been implicated in several outbreaks of human mycotoxicoses. Toxic effects in poultry include inhibition of protein, DNA, and RNA synthesis, cytotoxicity, immunomodulation, cell lesions in the digestive tract, organs and skin, neural disturbances and low performance in poultry production (decreased weight gain, egg production, and hatchability). Concentrations of T-2 toxin in feed are usually low, and its immunosuppressive effects and secondary infections often make diagnosis difficult. If at the onset of the disease, a change in diet leads to health and performance improvements in animals, this may point to mycotoxin poisoning. Regular control of grain and feed samples is a valuable preventive measure, and it is accurate only if representative samples are tested. This article reviews the incidence and toxic effects of T-2 toxin in poultry.
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Sokolovic M, Garaj-Vrhovac V, Ramic S, Simpraga B. Chicken nucleated blood cells as a cellular model for genotoxicity testing using the comet assay. Food Chem Toxicol 2007; 45:2165-70. [PMID: 17618029 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2007.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2005] [Revised: 09/08/2006] [Accepted: 05/21/2007] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins can frequently occur in animal feed and human food. T-2 toxin, as the most toxic trichothecene, has been implicated as the causative agent in a variety of animal diseases and is associated with some human diseases. The comet assay was performed as a test for detection of DNA damage caused by T-2 toxin in peripheral blood cells of chicken. The suitability of the comet assay as a biomarker for genotoxic analysis has been applied in studies using human white blood cells. It can be applied to any tissue from which a single cell suspension can be obtained. The method has already been applied to chicken as a foodstuff for detection of irradiation of food containing DNA. However, application of the method on chicken blood cells has not been set up yet. The aim of this research was to develop a protocol for detection of DNA damage induced by T-2 toxin in chicken blood cells. Chickens were administered orally with T-2 toxin and the samples of whole blood were collected at 24 h post treatment. The DNA damage was determined by an increase in the comet parameters in tested animals. Our results show that T-2 toxin had induced significant DNA damage in treated chicken as compared with control animals, indicating that the assay can be used for the assessment of primary DNA damage caused by mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Sokolovic
- Croatian Veterinary Institute, Poultry Centre, Heinzelova 55, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia.
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32
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Rezar V, Frankic T, Narat M, Levart A, Salobir J. Dose-dependent effects of T-2 toxin on performance, lipid peroxidation, and genotoxicity in broiler chickens. Poult Sci 2007; 86:1155-60. [PMID: 17495086 DOI: 10.1093/ps/86.6.1155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effects of different concentrations of T-2 toxin in feed on performance, lipid peroxidation, and genotoxicity in vivo. For a 17-d period, T-2 toxin was added to the diet of the chickens. Fifty 22-d-old male broiler chickens were divided into 5 groups that were supplemented with different concentrations of T-2 toxin: control (0.0 mg/kg of feed), T 0.5 (0.5 mg/kg of feed), T 1.5 (1.5 mg/kg of feed), T 4.5 (4.5 mg/kg of feed), and T 13.5 (13.5 mg/kg of feed). Deoxyribonucleic acid fragmentation in spleen leukocytes, malondialdehyde in plasma and liver, total plasma antioxidative status, glutathione peroxidase activity, and total serum Ig (IgA and IgG) were measured. Feed consumption and BW gain decreased when the concentration of T-2 toxin was 4.5 and 13.5 mg/kg of feed. Compared with the control group, the rate of DNA damage increased significantly in the group fed 13.5 mg of T-2 toxin/kg of feed. In contrast to DNA fragmentation, indicators of oxidative stress did not show differences between groups fed T-2 toxin and the control. More serum IgA was detected in the group T 13.5 compared with the control, whereas there were no differences in serum IgG levels. The results of the present study indicate that impaired performance, DNA fragmentation in spleen leukocytes, and elevated serum IgA levels induced by T-2 toxin are dose-dependent. Based on our results, we could not confirm the hypothesis that oxidative stress is among the mechanisms by which T-2 toxin induces DNA fragmentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Rezar
- Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Animal Science, University of Ljubljana, 1230 DomZale, Slovenia
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Jaradat ZW, Viià B, Marquardt RR. Adverse effects of T-2 toxin on chicken lymphocytes blastogenesis and its protection with Vitamin E. Toxicology 2006; 225:90-6. [PMID: 16790312 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2006.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2006] [Revised: 05/09/2006] [Accepted: 05/11/2006] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
T-2 toxin, a trichothecene mycotoxin that is produced by fusarium species, is prevalent mainly in cereal crops and poultry feed. One of the major effects of this toxin is immunomodulation. The effect of T-2 toxin on chicken lymphocyte proliferation in the presence of mitogens and the subsequent protection with Vitamin E in both fat and water soluble forms was studied using an MTT colorimetric assay. T-2 toxin was administered in concentrations ranging from 0 to 10ng/mL of lymphocytes in the presence of either concanavalin A (ConA) or phytohemagglutinine (PHA-M) at optimum concentration of 333ng/mL and a dilution of 1:160 for ConA and PHA-M, respectively. Lymphocyte proliferation in response to ConA and PHA-M mitogens was depressed at T-2 doses of 1ng/mL or higher (p<0.05). The proliferation was completely abolished at 10ng/mL when the toxin was added at 0 time, while it was decreased by 80% when the toxin was added to the lymphocytes after 24h. The addition of Vitamin E in the fat soluble form (alpha-tocopheryl acetate) did not exert any protection effect against the toxin when it was added at either 25 or 100microg. However, when the water soluble form (Trolox) was added at a concentration of (200microg) (equivalent to 100microM of alpha-tocopherol), it provided considerable protection (p<0.05) against T-2 toxin inhibition of lymphocyte proliferation. The difference in the effect between the two forms of Vitamin E might be related to their relative solubility in the culture media which in turn may affect their availability for protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziad W Jaradat
- Jordan University of Science and Technology, Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, P.O. Box 3030, Irbid 22110, Jordan.
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Le Dréan G, Auffret M, Batina P, Arnold F, Sibiril Y, Arzur D, Parent-Massin D. Myelotoxicity of trichothecenes and apoptosis: An in vitro study on human cord blood CD34+ hematopoietic progenitor. Toxicol In Vitro 2005; 19:1015-24. [PMID: 15908172 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2005.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2004] [Revised: 01/07/2005] [Accepted: 03/17/2005] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have revealed that hematological disorders associated with trichothecenes intoxication in humans could result from hematopoiesis inhibition. The most frequent and potent trichothecene mycotoxins are T-2 toxin and deoxynivalenol (DON), respectively. Apoptosis induction by these two toxins was investigated in vitro on human hematopoietic progenitors (CD34+ cells). Hoechst coloration, DNA fragmentation and annexin-V/PI labeling in flow cytometry showed that T-2 toxin, in contrast to DON, induced apoptosis in CD34+ cells. T-2 toxin effect was dose- and time-dependent with a significant increase of apoptotic cells as early as 3h after incubation at 10(-7) M and a maximum reached at 12 h. This observation evidenced the high sensitivity of hematopoietic progenitors to T-2 toxin. The inhibition of T-2 toxin-induced apoptosis by a pan-caspase inhibitor (Z-VAD-fmk) suggested the involvement of caspases. The proportional increase of caspase-3 specific activity (DEVDase) with T-2 toxin concentration confirmed its role in the process. After incubation of CD34+ cells with T-2 toxin, in conditions that induced apoptosis, clonal expansion of granulo-monocytes, erythrocytes and megakaryocytes precursors was dose-dependently inhibited. The hematological effects observed in T-2 toxin mycotoxicosis could then be assigned to hematopoiesis inhibition by apoptosis. Different mechanisms that need to be further elucidated are involved in DON myelotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Le Dréan
- Laboratoire de Toxicologie Alimentaire, EA 3880, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France.
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Pestka JJ, Zhou HR, Moon Y, Chung YJ. Cellular and molecular mechanisms for immune modulation by deoxynivalenol and other trichothecenes: unraveling a paradox. Toxicol Lett 2004; 153:61-73. [PMID: 15342082 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2004.04.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 356] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages, T cells, and B cells of the immune system are central targets of deoxynivalenol (DON) and other trichothecenes-mycotoxins that can be immunostimulatory or immunosuppressive depending on dose, exposure frequency and timing of functional immune assay. Notably, low dose trichothecene exposure transcriptionally and post-transcriptionally upregulates expression of cytokines, chemokines and inflammatory genes with concurrent immune stimulation, whereas high dose exposure promotes leukocyte apoptosis with concomitant immune suppression. DON and other trichothecenes, via a mechanism known as the ribotoxic stress response, bind to ribosomes and rapidly activate mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs). The latter are important transducers of downstream signaling events related to immune response and apoptosis. Using cloned macrophages, our laboratory has identified two critical upstream transducers of DON-induced MAPK activation. One transducer is double-stranded RNA-(dsRNA)-activated protein kinase (PKR), a widely-expressed serine/theonine protein kinase that can be activated by dsRNA, interferon, and other agents. The second transducer is hematopoetic cell kinase (Hck), a non-receptor associated Src family kinase. Inhibitors and gene silencing studies have revealed that Hck and PKR play roles in DON induced gene expression and apoptosis. Future studies should focus on the molecular linkages between these kinases and trichothecene toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- James J Pestka
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Michigan State University, 234 G.M. Trout Food Science and Human Nutrition Bldg., East Lansing, MI 48824-1224, USA.
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Fuchs E, Binder EM, Heidler D, Krska R. Structural characterization of metabolites after the microbial degradation of type A trichothecenes by the bacterial strain BBSH 797. FOOD ADDITIVES AND CONTAMINANTS 2002; 19:379-86. [PMID: 11962696 DOI: 10.1080/02652030110091154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Contamination of feed with trichothecenes, a group of Fusarium mycotoxins, leads to losses in performance due to their immunosupressive effects and the negative effect on the gastrointestinal system in animal production. A possible way of detoxification is microbial degradation, which was the focus of this study. A bacterial strain--BBSH 797--which can degrade some mycotoxins of the trichothecene group, has already been isolated. It transforms deoxynivalenol (DON) into its metabolite DOM-1, the non-toxic deepoxide of DON. Analogous to the microbial degradation of DON, the transformation of six different type A trichothecenes was observed. The metabolites appearing were characterized by GC-MS after derivatization with TRI-SIL TBT. Two metabolites were additionally, identified by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry with particle beam interface (LC-PB-MS) with electron impact (EI)-ionization mode. The major finding was that scirpentriol was completely transformed into its non-toxic metabolite deepoxy scirpentriol, while the mycotoxin T-2 triol underwent a more complicated metabolism. According to the study, T-2-triol was degraded into its non-toxic deepoxy form and into T-2 tetraol, which was then further metabolized to deepoxy T-2 tetraol. GC-MS after derivatization with TRI-SIL TBT was suitable for the structural characterization of trichothecenes and their degradation products. Besides the mass spectra of already known degradation products, spectra of new metabolites could be recorded by LC-PB-MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Fuchs
- IFA-Tulln, Center for Analytical Chemistry, Austria
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