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Ozawa M, Uchida H, Watanabe R, Numano S, Matsushima R, Oikawa H, Takahashi K, Lum WM, Benico G, Iwataki M, Suzuki T. New azaspiracid analogues detected as bi-charged ions in Azadinium poporum (Amphidomataceae, Dinophyceae) isolated from Japanese coastal waters. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2024; 1236:124065. [PMID: 38460449 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2024.124065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/11/2024]
Abstract
Lipophilic marine biotoxin azaspiracids (AZAs) are produced by dinoflagellates Azadinium and Amphidoma. Recently, several strains of Azadinium poporum were isolated from Japanese coastal waters, and detailed toxin profiles of two strains (mdd421 and HM536) among them were clarified by several detection techniques on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and liquid chromatography-quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOFMS). In our present study, AZA analogues in seven strains of A. poporum from Japanese coastal waters (including two previously reported strains) were determined by these detection techniques. The dominant AZA in the seven strains was AZA2 accompanied by small amounts of several known AZAs and twelve new AZA analogues. Eight of the twelve new AZA analogues discovered in our present study were detected as bi-charged ions on the positive mode LC/MS/MS. This is the first report describing AZA analogues detected as bi-charged ions with hexose and sulfate groups in their structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayu Ozawa
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Hajime Uchida
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Ryuichi Watanabe
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Satoshi Numano
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Ryoji Matsushima
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Hiroshi Oikawa
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Kazuya Takahashi
- Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan.
| | - Wai Mun Lum
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan; Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan.
| | - Garry Benico
- Department of Biological Sciences, Central Luzon State University, Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines.
| | - Mitsunori Iwataki
- Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan.
| | - Toshiyuki Suzuki
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
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Samdal IA, Sandvik M, Vu J, Sukenthirarasa MS, Kanesamurthy S, Løvberg KLE, Kilcoyne J, Forsyth CJ, Wright EJ, Miles CO. Preparation and characterization of an immunoaffinity column for the selective extraction of azaspiracids. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2022; 1207:123360. [PMID: 35839625 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2022.123360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Revised: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The presence of azaspiracids (AZAs) in shellfish may cause food poisoning in humans. AZAs can accumulate in shellfish filtering seawater that contains marine dinoflagellates such as Azadinium and Amphidoma spp. More than 60 AZA analogues have been identified, of which AZA1, AZA2 and AZA3 are regulated in Europe. Shellfish matrices may complicate quantitation by ELISA and LC-MS methods. Polyclonal antibodies have been developed that bind specifically to the C-26-C-40 domain of the AZA structure and could potentially be used for selectively extracting compounds containing this substructure. This includes almost all known analogues of AZAs, including AZA1, AZA2 and AZA3. Here we report preparation of immunoaffinity chromatography (IAC) columns for clean-up and concentration of AZAs. The IAC columns were prepared by coupling polyclonal anti-AZA IgG to CNBr-activated sepharose. The columns were evaluated using shellfish extracts, and the resulting fractions were analyzed by ELISA and LC-MS. The columns selectively bound over 300 ng AZAs per mL of gel without significant leakage, and did not retain the okadaic acid, cyclic imine, pectenotoxin and yessotoxin analogues that were present in the applied samples. Furthermore, 90-92% of the AZAs were recovered by elution with 90% MeOH, and the columns could be re-used without significant loss of performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingunn A Samdal
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, 1431 Ås, Norway.
| | - Morten Sandvik
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, 1431 Ås, Norway
| | - Jennie Vu
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; Oslo Metropolitan University, P.O. Box 4, St. Olavs plass, N-0130 Oslo, Norway
| | - Merii S Sukenthirarasa
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; Oslo Metropolitan University, P.O. Box 4, St. Olavs plass, N-0130 Oslo, Norway
| | - Sinthuja Kanesamurthy
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; Oslo Metropolitan University, P.O. Box 4, St. Olavs plass, N-0130 Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore H91 R673, County Galway, Ireland
| | - Craig J Forsyth
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43220, United States
| | - Elliott J Wright
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council of Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Christopher O Miles
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council of Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
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Ozawa M, Uchida H, Watanabe R, Matsushima R, Oikawa H, Takahashi K, Iwataki M, Suzuki T. Complex profiles of azaspiracid analogues in two culture strains of Azadinium poporum (Amphidomataceae, Dinophyceae) isolated from Japanese coastal waters determined by LC-MS/MS. Toxicon 2021; 199:145-155. [PMID: 34166679 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2021.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Revised: 06/10/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Lipophilic marine biotoxins azaspiracids (AZAs) are produced by dinoflagellates Azadinium and Amphidoma. Recently, several strains of Azadinium poporum were isolated from Japanese coastal waters. In our present study, AZA analogues in two strains (mdd421 and HM536) of A. poporum were analyzed by several detection techniques on the liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and liquid chromatography-quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOFMS). The dominant AZA analogue in the Japanese A. poporum strains was AZA2. Other known AZA analogues were AZA11, AZA35, AZA2 methyl ester and AZA2 phosphate ester. Besides these AZAs, thirteen new AZA analogues were discovered in the two strains. A putative AZA analogue (Compound 1) with the smallest molecular weight ever found in nature was also discovered in the two strains. This is the first report describing detailed AZA profiles in Japanese isolates of A. poporum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayu Ozawa
- Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, 4-5-7 Konan, Minato, Tokyo, 108-8477, Japan; Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Hajime Uchida
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Ryuichi Watanabe
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Ryoji Matsushima
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Hiroshi Oikawa
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Kazuya Takahashi
- Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113-8657, Japan.
| | - Mitsunori Iwataki
- Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113-8657, Japan.
| | - Toshiyuki Suzuki
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan.
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Dillon M, Zaczek-Moczydlowska MA, Edwards C, Turner AD, Miller PI, Moore H, McKinney A, Lawton L, Campbell K. Current Trends and Challenges for Rapid SMART Diagnostics at Point-of-Site Testing for Marine Toxins. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 21:2499. [PMID: 33916687 PMCID: PMC8038394 DOI: 10.3390/s21072499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Revised: 03/21/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
In the past twenty years marine biotoxin analysis in routine regulatory monitoring has advanced significantly in Europe (EU) and other regions from the use of the mouse bioassay (MBA) towards the high-end analytical techniques such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with tandem mass spectrometry (MS). Previously, acceptance of these advanced methods, in progressing away from the MBA, was hindered by a lack of commercial certified analytical standards for method development and validation. This has now been addressed whereby the availability of a wide range of analytical standards from several companies in the EU, North America and Asia has enhanced the development and validation of methods to the required regulatory standards. However, the cost of the high-end analytical equipment, lengthy procedures and the need for qualified personnel to perform analysis can still be a challenge for routine monitoring laboratories. In developing regions, aquaculture production is increasing and alternative inexpensive Sensitive, Measurable, Accurate and Real-Time (SMART) rapid point-of-site testing (POST) methods suitable for novice end users that can be validated and internationally accepted remain an objective for both regulators and the industry. The range of commercial testing kits on the market for marine toxin analysis remains limited and even more so those meeting the requirements for use in regulatory control. Individual assays include enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) and lateral flow membrane-based immunoassays (LFIA) for EU-regulated toxins, such as okadaic acid (OA) and dinophysistoxins (DTXs), saxitoxin (STX) and its analogues and domoic acid (DA) in the form of three separate tests offering varying costs and benefits for the industry. It can be observed from the literature that not only are developments and improvements ongoing for these assays, but there are also novel assays being developed using upcoming state-of-the-art biosensor technology. This review focuses on both currently available methods and recent advances in innovative methods for marine biotoxin testing and the end-user practicalities that need to be observed. Furthermore, it highlights trends that are influencing assay developments such as multiplexing capabilities and rapid POST, indicating potential detection methods that will shape the future market.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Dillon
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK; (M.D.); (M.A.Z.-M.)
- Faculty of Health, Peninsula Medical School, University of Plymouth, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
| | - Maja A. Zaczek-Moczydlowska
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK; (M.D.); (M.A.Z.-M.)
| | - Christine Edwards
- School of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen AB10 7GJ, UK; (C.E.); (L.L.)
| | - Andrew D. Turner
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK;
| | - Peter I. Miller
- Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Remote Sensing Group, Prospect Place, Plymouth PL1 3DH, UK;
| | - Heather Moore
- Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute, 18a Newforge Lane, Belfast, Northern Ireland BT9 5PX, UK; (H.M.); (A.M.)
| | - April McKinney
- Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute, 18a Newforge Lane, Belfast, Northern Ireland BT9 5PX, UK; (H.M.); (A.M.)
| | - Linda Lawton
- School of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen AB10 7GJ, UK; (C.E.); (L.L.)
| | - Katrina Campbell
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, 19 Chlorine Gardens, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK; (M.D.); (M.A.Z.-M.)
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Marine invertebrate interactions with Harmful Algal Blooms - Implications for One Health. J Invertebr Pathol 2021; 186:107555. [PMID: 33607127 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2021.107555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Harmful Algal Blooms (HAB) are natural atypical proliferations of micro or macro algae in either marine or freshwater environments which have significant impacts on human, animal and ecosystem health. The causative HAB organisms are primarily dinoflagellates and diatoms in marine and cyanobacteria within freshwater ecosystems. Several hundred species of HABs, most commonly marine dinoflagellates affect animal and ecosystem health either directly through physical, chemical or biological impacts on surrounding organisms or indirectly through production of algal toxins which transfer through lower-level trophic organisms to higher level predators. Traditionally, a major focus of HABs has concerned their natural production of toxins which bioaccumulate in filter-feeding invertebrates, which with subsequent trophic transfer and biomagnification cause issues throughout the food web, including the human health of seafood consumers. Whilst in many regions of the world, regulations, monitoring and risk management strategies help mitigate against the impacts from HAB/invertebrate toxins upon human health, there is ever-expanding evidence describing enormous impacts upon invertebrate health, as well as the health of higher trophic level organisms and marine ecosystems. This paper provides an overview of HABs and their relationships with aquatic invertebrates, together with a review of their combined impacts on animal, human and ecosystem health. With HAB/invertebrate outbreaks expected in some regions at higher frequency and intensity in the coming decades, we discuss the needs for new science, multi-disciplinary assessment and communication which will be essential for ensuring a continued increasing supply of aquaculture foodstuffs for further generations.
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Cho K, Heo J, Han J, Hong HD, Jeon H, Hwang HJ, Hong CY, Kim D, Han JW, Baek K. Industrial Applications of Dinoflagellate Phycotoxins Based on Their Modes of Action: A Review. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E805. [PMID: 33353166 PMCID: PMC7766252 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Dinoflagellates are an important group of phytoplanktons, characterized by two dissimilar flagella and distinctive features of both plants and animals. Dinoflagellate-generated harmful algal blooms (HABs) and associated damage frequently occur in coastal areas, which are concomitant with increasing eutrophication and climate change derived from anthropogenic waste and atmospheric carbon dioxide, respectively. The severe damage and harmful effects of dinoflagellate phycotoxins in the fishing industry have been recognized over the past few decades, and the management and monitoring of HABs have attracted much attention, leaving aside the industrial application of their valuable toxins. Specific modes of action of the organisms' toxins can effectively be utilized for producing beneficial materials, such as Botox and other therapeutic agents. This review aims to explore the potential industrial applications of marine dinoflagellate phycotoxins; furthermore, this review focuses on their modes of action and summarizes the available knowledge on them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kichul Cho
- Department of Applied Marine Bioresource Science, National Marine Biodiversity Institute of Korea (MABIK), Seocheon-gun, Chungchungnam-do 33662, Korea; (K.C.); (J.H.); (H.D.H.); (H.J.); (H.-J.H.); (K.B.)
| | - Jina Heo
- Growth Engine Research Department, Chungbuk Research Institute (CRI), Chungju, Chungchungbuk-do 28517, Korea;
| | - Jinwook Han
- Department of Applied Marine Bioresource Science, National Marine Biodiversity Institute of Korea (MABIK), Seocheon-gun, Chungchungnam-do 33662, Korea; (K.C.); (J.H.); (H.D.H.); (H.J.); (H.-J.H.); (K.B.)
| | - Hyun Dae Hong
- Department of Applied Marine Bioresource Science, National Marine Biodiversity Institute of Korea (MABIK), Seocheon-gun, Chungchungnam-do 33662, Korea; (K.C.); (J.H.); (H.D.H.); (H.J.); (H.-J.H.); (K.B.)
| | - Hancheol Jeon
- Department of Applied Marine Bioresource Science, National Marine Biodiversity Institute of Korea (MABIK), Seocheon-gun, Chungchungnam-do 33662, Korea; (K.C.); (J.H.); (H.D.H.); (H.J.); (H.-J.H.); (K.B.)
| | - Hyun-Ju Hwang
- Department of Applied Marine Bioresource Science, National Marine Biodiversity Institute of Korea (MABIK), Seocheon-gun, Chungchungnam-do 33662, Korea; (K.C.); (J.H.); (H.D.H.); (H.J.); (H.-J.H.); (K.B.)
| | - Chang-Yu Hong
- Department of Environmental and Urban Research, Jeju Research Institute, Jeju-si, Jeju-do 63147, Korea;
| | - Daekyung Kim
- Daegu Center, Korea Basic Science Institute (KBSI), Daegu, Gyeongsangbuk-do 41566, Korea
| | - Jong Won Han
- Department of Applied Marine Bioresource Science, National Marine Biodiversity Institute of Korea (MABIK), Seocheon-gun, Chungchungnam-do 33662, Korea; (K.C.); (J.H.); (H.D.H.); (H.J.); (H.-J.H.); (K.B.)
| | - Kyunghwa Baek
- Department of Applied Marine Bioresource Science, National Marine Biodiversity Institute of Korea (MABIK), Seocheon-gun, Chungchungnam-do 33662, Korea; (K.C.); (J.H.); (H.D.H.); (H.J.); (H.-J.H.); (K.B.)
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Samdal IA, Løvberg KE, Kristoffersen AB, Briggs LR, Kilcoyne J, Forsyth CJ, Miles CO. A Practical ELISA for Azaspiracids in Shellfish via Development of a New Plate-Coating Antigen. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2019; 67:2369-2376. [PMID: 30763083 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b05652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are a group of biotoxins that appear periodically in shellfish and can cause food poisoning in humans. Current methods for quantifying the regulated AZAs are restricted to LC-MS but are not well suited to detecting novel and unregulated AZAs. An ELISA method for total AZAs in shellfish was reported recently, but unfortunately, it used relatively large amounts of the AZA-1-containing plate-coating conjugate, consuming significant amounts of pure AZA-1 per assay. Therefore, a new plate-coater, OVA-cdiAZA1 was produced, resulting in an ELISA with a working range of 0.30-4.1 ng/mL and a limit of quantification of 37 μg/kg for AZA-1 in shellfish. This ELISA was nearly twice as sensitive as the previous ELISA while using 5-fold less plate-coater. The new ELISA displayed broad cross-reactivity toward AZAs, detecting all available quantitative AZA reference materials as well as the precursors to AZA-3 and AZA-6, and results from shellfish analyzed with the new ELISA showed excellent correlation ( R2 = 0.99) with total AZA-1-10 by LC-MS. The results suggest that the new ELISA is suitable for screening samples for total AZAs, even in cases where novel AZAs are present and regulated AZAs are absent, such as was reported recently from Puget Sound and the Bay of Naples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingunn A Samdal
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute , P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo , Norway
| | - Kjersti E Løvberg
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute , P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo , Norway
| | | | - Lyn R Briggs
- AgResearch Ltd., Ruakura Research Centre , Hamilton 3214 , New Zealand
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute , Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway H91 R673 , Ireland
| | - Craig J Forsyth
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , The Ohio State University , Columbus , Ohio 43220 , United States
| | - Christopher O Miles
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute , P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo , Norway
- National Research Council Canada , 1411 Oxford St , Halifax , NS B3H 3Z1 , Canada
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Krock B, Tillmann U, Tebben J, Trefault N, Gu H. Two novel azaspiracids from Azadinium poporum, and a comprehensive compilation of azaspiracids produced by Amphidomataceae, (Dinophyceae). HARMFUL ALGAE 2019; 82:1-8. [PMID: 30928006 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2018.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2018] [Revised: 11/26/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Two novel azaspiracids (AZA) with a molecular mass of 869 Da were found in Pacific strains of Azadinium poporum and characterized by tandem mass spectrometry and high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). One compound, AZA-42, was found in Az. poporum strains AZFC25 and AZFC26, both isolated from the South China Sea. AZA-42 belongs to the 360-type AZA that in comparison to AZA-1 has an additional double bond in the F-I ring system of AZA comprising C28-C40. The other compound, AZA-62, was detected in Az. poporum strain 1D5 isolated off Chañaral, Northern Chile. Mass spectral data indicate that AZA-62 is a variant of AZA-11 with an additional double bond in the C1-C9 region of AZA. In addition to the description of the two novel AZA, a comprehensive list of all AZA known to be produced by species of the genera Azadinium and Amphidoma comprising 26 AZA variants is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Krock
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Jan Tebben
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Nicole Trefault
- GEMA Center for Genomics, Ecology & Environment, Faculty of Sciences, Universidad Mayor, Camino La Pirámide 5750, Huechuraba, Santiago, Chile
| | - Haifeng Gu
- Third Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Xiamen 361005, China
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Tamele IJ, Silva M, Vasconcelos V. The Incidence of Marine Toxins and the Associated Seafood Poisoning Episodes in the African Countries of the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E58. [PMID: 30669603 PMCID: PMC6357038 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11010058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2018] [Revised: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The occurrence of Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) and bacteria can be one of the great threats to public health due to their ability to produce marine toxins (MTs). The most reported MTs include paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), amnesic shellfish toxins (ASTs), diarrheic shellfish toxins (DSTs), cyclic imines (CIs), ciguatoxins (CTXs), azaspiracids (AZTs), palytoxin (PlTXs), tetrodotoxins (TTXs) and their analogs, some of them leading to fatal outcomes. MTs have been reported in several marine organisms causing human poisoning incidents since these organisms constitute the food basis of coastal human populations. In African countries of the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea, to date, only South Africa has a specific monitoring program for MTs and some other countries count only with respect to centers of seafood poisoning control. Therefore, the aim of this review is to evaluate the occurrence of MTs and associated poisoning episodes as a contribution to public health and monitoring programs as an MT risk assessment tool for this geographic region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isidro José Tamele
- CIIMAR/CIMAR-Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-238 Matosinhos, Portugal.
- Institute of Biomedical Science Abel Salazar, University of Porto, R. Jorge de Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Eduardo Mondlane University, Av. Julius Nyerere, n 3453, Campus Principal, Maputo 257, Mozambique.
| | - Marisa Silva
- CIIMAR/CIMAR-Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-238 Matosinhos, Portugal.
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4619-007 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- CIIMAR/CIMAR-Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-238 Matosinhos, Portugal.
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4619-007 Porto, Portugal.
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Kilcoyne J, McCarron P, Twiner MJ, Rise F, Hess P, Wilkins AL, Miles CO. Identification of 21,22-Dehydroazaspiracids in Mussels ( Mytilus edulis) and in Vitro Toxicity of Azaspiracid-26. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2018; 81:885-893. [PMID: 29488755 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.7b00973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine biotoxins produced by the genera Azadinium and Amphidoma, pelagic marine dinoflagellates that may accumulate in shellfish resulting in human illness following consumption. The complexity of these toxins has been well documented, with more than 40 structural variants reported that are produced by dinoflagellates, result from metabolism in shellfish, or are extraction artifacts. Approximately 34 μg of a new AZA with MW 823 Da (AZA26 (3)) was isolated from blue mussels ( Mytilus edulis), and its structure determined by MS and NMR spectroscopy. AZA26, possibly a bioconversion product of AZA5, lacked the C-20-C-21 diol present in all AZAs reported thus far and had a 21,22-olefin and a keto group at C-23. Toxicological assessment of 3 using an in vitro model system based on Jurkat T lymphocyte cells showed the potency to be ∼30-fold lower than that of AZA1. The corresponding 21,22-dehydro-23-oxo-analogue of AZA10 (AZA28) and 21,22-dehydro analogues of AZA3, -4, -5, -6, -9, and -10 (AZA25, -48 (4), -60, -27, -49, and -61, respectively) were also identified by HRMS/MS, periodate cleavage reactivity, conversion from known analogues, and NMR (for 4 that was present in a partially purified sample of AZA7).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute , Rinville, Oranmore , Co. Galway H91 R673 , Ireland
| | - Pearse McCarron
- Measurement Science and Standards , National Research Council Canada , Halifax , NS B3H 3Z1 , Canada
| | - Michael J Twiner
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Detroit Receiving Hospital , Wayne State University , Detroit , Michigan 48202 , United States
| | - Frode Rise
- Department of Chemistry , University of Oslo , N-0315 Oslo , Norway
| | - Philipp Hess
- Ifremer, Laboratoire Phycotoxines , Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu , 44311 Nantes , France
| | - Alistair L Wilkins
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute , P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, 0106 Oslo , Norway
| | - Christopher O Miles
- Measurement Science and Standards , National Research Council Canada , Halifax , NS B3H 3Z1 , Canada
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute , P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, 0106 Oslo , Norway
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11
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Miles CO, Kilcoyne J, McCarron P, Giddings SD, Waaler T, Rundberget T, Samdal IA, Løvberg KE. Selective Extraction and Purification of Azaspiracids from Blue Mussels ( Mytilus edulis) Using Boric Acid Gel. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2018; 66:2962-2969. [PMID: 29502403 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b00346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids belong to a family of more than 50 polyether toxins originating from marine dinoflagellates such as Azadinium spinosum. All of the azaspiracids reported thus far contain a 21,22-dihydroxy group. Boric acid gel can bind selectively to compounds containing vic-diols or α-hydroxycarboxylic acids via formation of reversible boronate complexes. Here we report use of the gel to selectively capture and release azaspiracids from extracts of blue mussels. Analysis of the extracts and fractions by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS) showed that this procedure resulted in an excellent cleanup of the azaspiracids in the extract. Analysis by enzyme-linked immunoasorbent assay (ELISA) and LC-MS indicated that most azaspiracid analogues were recovered in good yield by this procedure. The capacity of boric acid gel for azaspiracids was at least 50 μg/g, making this procedure suitable for use in the early stages of preparative purification of azaspiracids. In addition to its potential for concentration of dilute samples, the extensive cleanup provided by boric acid gel fractionation of azaspiracids in mussel samples almost eliminated matrix effects during subsequent LC-MS and could be expected to reduce matrix effects during ELISA analysis. The method may therefore prove useful for quantitative analysis of azaspiracids as part of monitoring programs. Although LC-MS data showed that okadaic acid analogues also bound to the gel, this was much less efficient than for azaspiracids under the conditions used. The boric acid gel methodology is potentially applicable to other important groups of natural toxins containing diols including ciguatoxins, palytoxins, pectenotoxins, tetrodotoxin, trichothecenes, and toxin glycosides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher O Miles
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum , N-0106 Oslo , Norway
- Measurement Science and Standards , National Research Council , 1411 Oxford Street , Halifax , Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1 , Canada
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, Co., Galway H91 R673 , Ireland
| | - Pearse McCarron
- Measurement Science and Standards , National Research Council , 1411 Oxford Street , Halifax , Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1 , Canada
| | - Sabrina D Giddings
- Measurement Science and Standards , National Research Council , 1411 Oxford Street , Halifax , Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1 , Canada
| | - Thor Waaler
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum , N-0106 Oslo , Norway
| | - Thomas Rundberget
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum , N-0106 Oslo , Norway
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research , N-0349 Oslo , Norway
| | - Ingunn A Samdal
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum , N-0106 Oslo , Norway
| | - Kjersti E Løvberg
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum , N-0106 Oslo , Norway
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12
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Rossi R, Dell'Aversano C, Krock B, Ciminiello P, Percopo I, Tillmann U, Soprano V, Zingone A. Mediterranean Azadinium dexteroporum (Dinophyceae) produces six novel azaspiracids and azaspiracid-35: a structural study by a multi-platform mass spectrometry approach. Anal Bioanal Chem 2016; 409:1121-1134. [PMID: 27822651 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-016-0037-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2016] [Revised: 10/11/2016] [Accepted: 10/17/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Azadinium dexteroporum is the first species of the genus described from the Mediterranean Sea and it produces different azaspiracids (AZA). The aims of this work were to characterize the toxin profile of the species and gain structural information on azaspiracids produced by the A. dexteroporum strain SZN-B848 isolated from the Gulf of Naples. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analyses were carried out on three MS systems having different ion source geometries (ESI, TurboIonSpray®, ESI ION MAX) and different MS analyzers operating either at unit resolution or at high resolution, namely a hybrid triple quadrupole-linear ion trap (Q-Trap MS), a time of flight (TOF MS), and a hybrid linear ion trap Orbitrap XL Fourier transform mass spectrometer (LTQ Orbitrap XL FTMS). As a combined result of these different analyses, A. dexteroporum showed to produce AZA-35, previously reported from Azadinium spinosum, and six compounds that represent new additions to the AZA-group of toxins, including AZA-54 to AZA-58 and 3-epiAZA-7, a stereoisomer of the shellfish metabolite AZA-7. Based on the interpretation of fragmentation patterns, we propose that all these molecules, except AZA-55, have the same A to I ring system as AZA-1, with structural modifications all located in the carboxylic side chain. Considering that none of the azaspiracids produced by the Mediterranean strain of A. dexteroporum is currently regulated by European food safety authorities, monitoring programs of marine biotoxins in the Mediterranean area should take into account the occurrence of the new analogues to avoid an underestimation of the AZA-related risk for seafood consumers. Graphical Abstract A multi-platform MS approach reveals known and new azaspiracids in a Mediterranean strain of Azadinium dexteroporum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachele Rossi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute 2, 80055, Portici, Italy
| | - Carmela Dell'Aversano
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Napoli Federico II, Via D. Montesano 49, 80131, Napoli, Italy.
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Patrizia Ciminiello
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Napoli Federico II, Via D. Montesano 49, 80131, Napoli, Italy
| | - Isabella Percopo
- Department of Integrative Marine Ecology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, 80121, Napoli, Italy
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Vittorio Soprano
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute 2, 80055, Portici, Italy
| | - Adriana Zingone
- Department of Integrative Marine Ecology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, 80121, Napoli, Italy.
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13
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Ferreiro SF, Vilariño N, Carrera C, Louzao MC, Cantalapiedra AG, Santamarina G, Cifuentes JM, Vieira AC, Botana LM. Subacute Cardiovascular Toxicity of the Marine Phycotoxin Azaspiracid-1 in Rats. Toxicol Sci 2016; 151:104-14. [PMID: 26865666 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfw025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine toxins produced by Azadinium spinosum that get accumulated in filter feeding shellfish through the food-web. The first intoxication was described in The Netherlands in 1990, and since then several episodes have been reported worldwide. Azaspiracid-1, AZA-2, and AZA-3 presence in shellfish is regulated by food safety authorities of several countries to protect human health. Azaspiracids have been related to widespread organ damage, tumorogenic properties and acute heart rhythm alterations in vivo but the mechanism of action remains unknown. Azaspiracid toxicity kinetics in vivo and in vitro suggests accumulative effects. We studied subacute cardiotoxicity in vivo after repeated exposure to AZA-1 by evaluation of the ECG, arterial blood pressure, plasmatic heart damage biomarkers, and myocardium structure and ultrastructure. Our results showed that four administrations of AZA-1 along 15 days caused functional signs of heart failure and structural heart alterations in rats at doses ranging from 1 to 55 µg/kg. Azaspiracid-1 altered arterial blood pressure, tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase-1 plasma levels, heart collagen deposition, and ultrastructure of the myocardium. Overall, these data indicate that repeated exposure to low amounts of AZA-1 causes cardiotoxicity, at doses that do not induce signs of other organic system toxicity. Remarkably, human exposure to AZAs considering current regulatory limits of these toxins may be dangerously close to clearly cardiotoxic doses in rats. These findings should be considered when human risk is estimated particularly in high cardiovascular risk subpopulations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Cristina Carrera
- *Departamento de Farmacología Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina
| | | | - Antonio G Cantalapiedra
- Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina Departamento de Ciencias Clínicas Veterinarias
| | - Germán Santamarina
- Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina Departamento de Ciencias Clínicas Veterinarias
| | - J Manuel Cifuentes
- Departamento de Anatomía y Producción Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
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14
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Kilcoyne J, McCarron P, Hess P, Miles CO. Effects of Heating on Proportions of Azaspiracids 1-10 in Mussels (Mytilus edulis) and Identification of Carboxylated Precursors for Azaspiracids 5, 10, 13, and 15. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2015; 63:10980-10987. [PMID: 26631586 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b04609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine biotoxins that induce human illness following the consumption of contaminated shellfish. European Union regulation stipulates that only raw shellfish are tested, yet shellfish are often cooked prior to consumption. Analysis of raw and heat-treated mussels (Mytilus edulis) naturally contaminated with AZAs revealed significant differences (up to 4.6-fold) in AZA1-3 (1-3) and 6 (6) values due to heat-induced chemical conversions. Consistent with previous studies, high levels of 3 and 6 were detected in some samples that were otherwise below the limit of quantitation before heating. Relative to 1, in heat-treated mussels the average (n = 40) levels of 3 (range, 11-502%) and 6 (range, 3-170%) were 62 and 31%, respectively. AZA4 (4) (range, <1-27%), AZA5 (5) (range, 1-21%), and AZA8 (8) (range, 1-27%) were each ∼5%, whereas AZA7 (7), AZA9 (9), and AZA10 (10) (range, <1-8%) were each under 1.5%. Levels of 5, 10, AZA13 (13), and AZA15 (15) increased after heating, leading to the identification of novel carboxylated AZA precursors in raw shellfish extracts, which were shown by deuterium labeling to be precursors for 5, 10, 13, and 15.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute , Rinville, Oranmore, Co. Galway, Ireland
| | - Pearse McCarron
- Measurement Science and Standards, National Research Council Canada , Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Philipp Hess
- Laboratoire Phycotoxines, Ifremer , Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France
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15
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Krock B, Tillmann U, Potvin É, Jeong HJ, Drebing W, Kilcoyne J, Al-Jorani A, Twiner MJ, Göthel Q, Köck M. Structure Elucidation and in Vitro Toxicity of New Azaspiracids Isolated from the Marine Dinoflagellate Azadinium poporum. Mar Drugs 2015; 13:6687-702. [PMID: 26528990 PMCID: PMC4663548 DOI: 10.3390/md13116687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2015] [Revised: 06/14/2015] [Accepted: 10/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Two strains of Azadinium poporum, one from the Korean West coast and the other from the North Sea, were mass cultured for isolation of new azaspiracids. Approximately 0.9 mg of pure AZA-36 (1) and 1.3 mg of pure AZA-37 (2) were isolated from the Korean (870 L) and North Sea (120 L) strains, respectively. The structures were determined to be 3-hydroxy-8-methyl-39-demethyl-azaspiracid-1 (1) and 3-hydroxy-7,8-dihydro-39-demethyl-azaspiracid-1 (2) by ¹H- and (13)C-NMR. Using the Jurkat T lymphocyte cell toxicity assay, (1) and (2) were found to be 6- and 3-fold less toxic than AZA-1, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Krock
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany; E-Mails: (U.T.); (W.D.); (Q.G.)
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany; E-Mails: (U.T.); (W.D.); (Q.G.)
| | - Éric Potvin
- Division of Polar Ocean Environment, Korea Polar Research Institute, Incheon 406-840, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Hae Jin Jeong
- School of Earth and Environmental Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-747, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Wolfgang Drebing
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany; E-Mails: (U.T.); (W.D.); (Q.G.)
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, Co. Galway, H91 R673, Ireland; E-Mail:
| | - Ahmed Al-Jorani
- Department of Natural Sciences, University of Michigan, Dearborn, MI 48202, USA; E-Mails: (A.A.-J.); (M.J.T.)
| | - Michael J. Twiner
- Department of Natural Sciences, University of Michigan, Dearborn, MI 48202, USA; E-Mails: (A.A.-J.); (M.J.T.)
| | - Qun Göthel
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany; E-Mails: (U.T.); (W.D.); (Q.G.)
| | - Matthias Köck
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany; E-Mails: (U.T.); (W.D.); (Q.G.)
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16
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Samdal IA, Løvberg KE, Briggs LR, Kilcoyne J, Xu J, Forsyth CJ, Miles CO. Development of an ELISA for the Detection of Azaspiracids. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2015; 63:7855-7861. [PMID: 26245830 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b02513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are a group of biotoxins that cause food poisoning in humans. These toxins are produced by small marine dinoflagellates such as Azadinium spinosum and accumulate in shellfish. Ovine polyclonal antibodies were produced and used to develop an ELISA for quantitating AZAs in shellfish, algal cells, and culture supernatants. Immunizing antigens were prepared from synthetic fragments of the constant region of AZAs, while plate coating antigen was prepared from AZA-1. The ELISA provides a sensitive and rapid analytical method for screening large numbers of samples. It has a working range of 0.45-8.6 ng/mL and a limit of quantitation for total AZAs in whole shellfish at 57 μg/kg, well below the maximum permitted level set by the European Commission. The ELISA has good cross-reactivity to AZA-1-10, -33, and -34 and 37-epi-AZA-1. Naturally contaminated Irish mussels gave similar results whether they were cooked or uncooked, indicating that the ELISA also detects 22-carboxy-AZA metabolites (e.g., AZA-17 and AZA-19). ELISA results showed excellent correlation with LC-MS/MS analysis, both for mussel extract spiked with AZA-1 and for naturally contaminated Irish mussels. The assay is therefore well suited to screening for AZAs in shellfish samples intended for human consumption, as well as for studies on AZA metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingunn A Samdal
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo, Norway
| | - Kjersti E Løvberg
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo, Norway
| | - Lyn R Briggs
- AgResearch, Ruakura, East Street, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, New Zealand
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute , Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway, Ireland
| | - Jianyan Xu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities , Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Craig J Forsyth
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio State University , Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
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17
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Kilcoyne J, Twiner MJ, McCarron P, Crain S, Giddings SD, Foley B, Rise F, Hess P, Wilkins AL, Miles CO. Structure Elucidation, Relative LC-MS Response and In Vitro Toxicity of Azaspiracids 7-10 Isolated from Mussels (Mytilus edulis). JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2015; 63:5083-5091. [PMID: 25909151 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b01320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine biotoxins produced by dinoflagellates that can accumulate in shellfish, which if consumed can lead to poisoning events. AZA7-10, 7-10, were isolated from shellfish and their structures, previously proposed on the basis of only LC-MS/MS data, were confirmed by NMR spectroscopy. Purified AZA4-6, 4-6, and 7-10 were accurately quantitated by qNMR and used to assay cytotoxicity with Jurkat T lymphocyte cells for the first time. LC-MS(MS) molar response studies performed using isocratic and gradient elution in both selected ion monitoring and selected reaction monitoring modes showed that responses for the analogues ranged from 0.3 to 1.2 relative to AZA1, 1. All AZA analogues tested were cytotoxic to Jurkat T lymphocyte cells in a time- and concentration-dependent manner; however, there were distinct differences in their EC50 values, with the potencies for each analogue being: AZA6 > AZA8 > AZA1 > AZA4 ≈ AZA9 > AZA5 ≈ AZA10. This data contributes to the understanding of the structure-activity relationships of AZAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Kilcoyne
- †Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway, Ireland
- ‡School of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dublin Institute of Technology, Kevin Street, Dublin 8, Ireland
| | - Michael J Twiner
- §School of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Pearse McCarron
- ⊥Measurement Science and Standards, Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Sheila Crain
- ⊥Measurement Science and Standards, Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Sabrina D Giddings
- ⊥Measurement Science and Standards, Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Barry Foley
- ‡School of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dublin Institute of Technology, Kevin Street, Dublin 8, Ireland
| | - Frode Rise
- ∥Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo, N-0315 Oslo, Norway
| | - Philipp Hess
- ▽Ifremer, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France
| | | | - Christopher O Miles
- ○Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, 0106 Oslo Norway
- #Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068 Blindern, N-0316 Oslo Norway
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18
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O'Driscoll D, Škrabáková Z, James KJ. Confirmation of extensive natural distribution of azaspiracids in the tissue compartments of mussels (Mytilus edulis). Toxicon 2014; 92:123-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2014] [Revised: 10/06/2014] [Accepted: 10/08/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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19
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Kilcoyne J, Nulty C, Jauffrais T, McCarron P, Herve F, Foley B, Rise F, Crain S, Wilkins AL, Twiner MJ, Hess P, Miles CO. Isolation, structure elucidation, relative LC-MS response, and in vitro toxicity of azaspiracids from the dinoflagellate Azadinium spinosum. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2014; 77:2465-2474. [PMID: 25356854 DOI: 10.1021/np500555k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
We identified three new azaspiracids (AZAs) with molecular weights of 715, 815, and 829 (AZA33 (3), AZA34 (4), and AZA35, respectively) in mussels, seawater, and Azadinium spinosum culture. Approximately 700 μg of 3 and 250 μg of 4 were isolated from a bulk culture of A. spinosum, and their structures determined by MS and NMR spectroscopy. These compounds differ significantly at the carboxyl end of the molecule from known AZA analogues and therefore provide valuable information on structure-activity relationships. Initial toxicological assessment was performed using an in vitro model system based on Jurkat T lymphocyte cytotoxicity, and the potencies of 3 and 4 were found to be 0.22- and 5.5-fold that of AZA1 (1), respectively. Thus, major changes in the carboxyl end of 1 resulted in significant changes in toxicity. In mussel extracts, 3 was detected at low levels, whereas 4 and AZA35 were detected only at extremely low levels or not at all. The structures of 3 and 4 are consistent with AZAs being biosynthetically assembled from the amino end.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute , Rinville, Oranmore, Galway, Ireland
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20
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McCarron P, Giddings SD, Reeves KL, Hess P, Quilliam MA. A mussel (Mytilus edulis) tissue certified reference material for the marine biotoxins azaspiracids. Anal Bioanal Chem 2014; 407:2985-96. [PMID: 25335820 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-014-8250-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2014] [Revised: 10/02/2014] [Accepted: 10/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are lipophilic biotoxins produced by marine algae that can contaminate shellfish and cause human illness. The European Union (EU) regulates the level of AZAs in shellfish destined for the commercial market, with liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) being used as the official reference method for regulatory analysis. Certified reference materials (CRMs) are essential tools for the development, validation, and quality control of LC-MS methods. This paper describes the work that went into the planning, preparation, characterization, and certification of CRM-AZA-Mus, a tissue matrix CRM, which was prepared as a wet homogenate from mussels (Mytilus edulis) naturally contaminated with AZAs. The homogeneity and stability of CRM-AZA-Mus were evaluated, and the CRM was found to be fit for purpose. Extraction and LC-MS/MS methods were developed to accurately certify the concentrations of AZA1 (1.16 mg/kg), AZA2 (0.27 mg/kg), and AZA3 (0.21 mg/kg) in the CRM. Quantitation methods based on standard addition and matrix-matched calibration were used to compensate for the matrix effects in LC-MS/MS. Other toxins present in this CRM at lower levels were also measured with information values reported for okadaic acid, dinophysistoxin-2, yessotoxin, and several spirolides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pearse McCarron
- National Research Council of Canada, Measurement Science and Standards, Biotoxin Metrology, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, NS, B3H 3Z1, Canada,
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21
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Kilcoyne J, McCarron P, Twiner MJ, Nulty C, Crain S, Quilliam MA, Rise F, Wilkins AL, Miles CO. Epimers of azaspiracids: Isolation, structural elucidation, relative LC-MS response, and in vitro toxicity of 37-epi-azaspiracid-1. Chem Res Toxicol 2014; 27:587-600. [PMID: 24506502 DOI: 10.1021/tx400434b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Since azaspiracid-1 (AZA1) was identified in 1998, the number of AZA analogues has increased to over 30. The development of an LC-MS method using a neutral mobile phase led to the discovery of isomers of AZA1, AZA2, and AZA3, present at ~2-16% of the parent analogues in phytoplankton and shellfish samples. Under acidic mobile phase conditions, isomers and their parents are not separated. Stability studies showed that these isomers were spontaneous epimerization products whose formation is accelerated with the application of heat. The AZA1 isomer was isolated from contaminated shellfish and identified as 37-epi-AZA1 by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and chemical analyses. Similar analysis indicated that the isomers of AZA2 and AZA3 corresponded to 37-epi-AZA2 and 37-epi-AZA3, respectively. The 37-epimers were found to exist in equilibrium with the parent compounds in solution. 37-epi-AZA1 was quantitated by NMR, and relative molar response studies were performed to determine the potential differences in LC-MS response of AZA1 and 37-epi-AZA1. Toxicological effects were determined using Jurkat T lymphocyte cells as an in vitro cell model. Cytotoxicity experiments employing a metabolically based dye (i.e., MTS) indicated that 37-epi-AZA1 elicited a lethal response that was both concentration- and time-dependent, with EC50 values in the subnanomolar range. On the basis of EC50 comparisons, 37-epi-AZA1 was 5.1-fold more potent than AZA1. This data suggests that the presence of these epimers in seafood products should be considered in the analysis of AZAs for regulatory purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County, Galway, Ireland
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Jauffrais T, Contreras A, Herrenknecht C, Truquet P, Séchet V, Tillmann U, Hess P. Effect of Azadinium spinosum on the feeding behaviour and azaspiracid accumulation of Mytilus edulis. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2012; 124-125:179-187. [PMID: 22982497 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2012.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2012] [Revised: 08/20/2012] [Accepted: 08/21/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Azadinium spinosum, a small toxic dinoflagellate, was recently isolated and identified as a primary producer of azaspiracid toxins (AZAs). Previous experiments related to AZA accumulation in blue mussels upon direct feeding with A. spinosum revealed increased mussel mortality and had negative effects on the thickness of the digestive gland tubules. Therefore we conducted follow up experiments in order to study effects of A. spinosum on mussel feeding behaviour. Individual assessment of mussel feeding time activity (FTA), clearance rate (CR), filtration rate (TFR), absorption rate (AR), faeces and pseudofaeces production were carried out on mussel fed either toxic (A. spinosum) or non-toxic (Isochrisis aff. galbana (T-Iso)) diets. Furthermore, AZA accumulation and biotransformation in mussels were followed using liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). A. spinosum had a significant effect on mussel feeding behaviour compared to T-Iso: CR was lower by a factor of 6, FTA by a factor of 5, TFR by a factor of 3 and AR even decreased to negative values for the last day of exposure. Even so, a rapid AZA accumulation was observed during the first hours of the trial; less than 6h of feeding were required to reach AZA concentration in mussel above regulatory level. In consistence with physiological observations, AZA concentration of about 200 μg kg(-1) did not increase further until the end of the study. AZA bioconversion was also found to be a fast process: after 3h of exposure AZA17, -19 and AZA7-10 were already found, with a proportion of AZA17 equal to AZA2. These results show a negative effect of A. spinosum on blue mussel feeding activity and indicate a possible regulation of AZA uptake by decreasing filtration and increasing pseudofaeces production.
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Krock B, Tillmann U, Voß D, Koch BP, Salas R, Witt M, Potvin É, Jeong HJ. New azaspiracids in Amphidomataceae (Dinophyceae). Toxicon 2012; 60:830-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2012] [Revised: 05/10/2012] [Accepted: 05/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Jauffrais T, Marcaillou C, Herrenknecht C, Truquet P, Séchet V, Nicolau E, Tillmann U, Hess P. Azaspiracid accumulation, detoxification and biotransformation in blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) experimentally fed Azadinium spinosum. Toxicon 2012; 60:582-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.04.351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2012] [Revised: 04/19/2012] [Accepted: 04/25/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Jauffrais T, Kilcoyne J, Séchet V, Herrenknecht C, Truquet P, Hervé F, Bérard JB, Nulty C, Taylor S, Tillmann U, Miles CO, Hess P. Production and isolation of azaspiracid-1 and -2 from Azadinium spinosum culture in pilot scale photobioreactors. Mar Drugs 2012; 10:1360-1382. [PMID: 22822378 PMCID: PMC3397445 DOI: 10.3390/md10061360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2012] [Revised: 06/01/2012] [Accepted: 06/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Azaspiracid (AZA) poisoning has been reported following consumption of contaminated shellfish, and is of human health concern. Hence, it is important to have sustainable amounts of the causative toxins available for toxicological studies and for instrument calibration in monitoring programs, without having to rely on natural toxin events. Continuous pilot scale culturing was carried out to evaluate the feasibility of AZA production using Azadinium spinosum cultures. Algae were harvested using tangential flow filtration or continuous centrifugation. AZAs were extracted using solid phase extraction (SPE) procedures, and subsequently purified. When coupling two stirred photobioreactors in series, cell concentrations reached 190,000 and 210,000 cell·mL−1 at steady state in bioreactors 1 and 2, respectively. The AZA cell quota decreased as the dilution rate increased from 0.15 to 0.3 day−1, with optimum toxin production at 0.25 day−1. After optimization, SPE procedures allowed for the recovery of 79 ± 9% of AZAs. The preparative isolation procedure previously developed for shellfish was optimized for algal extracts, such that only four steps were necessary to obtain purified AZA1 and -2. A purification efficiency of more than 70% was achieved, and isolation from 1200 L of culture yielded 9.3 mg of AZA1 and 2.2 mg of AZA2 of >95% purity. This work demonstrated the feasibility of sustainably producing AZA1 and -2 from A. spinosum cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thierry Jauffrais
- Ifremer, EMP/PHYC Laboratory, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France; (V.S.); (P.T.); (F.H.); (S.T.)
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; (T.J.); (P.H.); Tel.: +33-2-40-37-40-00 (T.J.); Fax: +33-2-40-37-40-73 (T.J.); Tel.: +33-2-40-37-42-57 (P.H.); Fax: +33-2-40-37-40-26 (P.H.)
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, Co., Galway, Ireland; (J.K.); (C.N.)
| | - Véronique Séchet
- Ifremer, EMP/PHYC Laboratory, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France; (V.S.); (P.T.); (F.H.); (S.T.)
| | | | - Philippe Truquet
- Ifremer, EMP/PHYC Laboratory, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France; (V.S.); (P.T.); (F.H.); (S.T.)
| | - Fabienne Hervé
- Ifremer, EMP/PHYC Laboratory, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France; (V.S.); (P.T.); (F.H.); (S.T.)
| | | | - Cíara Nulty
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, Co., Galway, Ireland; (J.K.); (C.N.)
| | - Sarah Taylor
- Ifremer, EMP/PHYC Laboratory, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France; (V.S.); (P.T.); (F.H.); (S.T.)
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Am Handelshafen 12, D-27570 Bremerhaven, Germany;
| | | | - Philipp Hess
- Ifremer, EMP/PHYC Laboratory, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France; (V.S.); (P.T.); (F.H.); (S.T.)
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; (T.J.); (P.H.); Tel.: +33-2-40-37-40-00 (T.J.); Fax: +33-2-40-37-40-73 (T.J.); Tel.: +33-2-40-37-42-57 (P.H.); Fax: +33-2-40-37-40-26 (P.H.)
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Twiner MJ, El-Ladki R, Kilcoyne J, Doucette GJ. Comparative Effects of the Marine Algal Toxins Azaspiracid-1, -2, and -3 on Jurkat T Lymphocyte Cells. Chem Res Toxicol 2012; 25:747-54. [DOI: 10.1021/tx200553p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael J. Twiner
- Department
of Natural Sciences, University of Michigan—Dearborn, Dearborn, Michigan,
United States
| | - Racha El-Ladki
- Department
of Natural Sciences, University of Michigan—Dearborn, Dearborn, Michigan,
United States
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Renville, Oranmore, Co. Galway, Ireland
| | - Gregory J. Doucette
- Marine Biotoxins Program, NOAA/National Ocean Service, Charleston, South Carolina,
United States
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Quantitative analysis of azaspiracids in Azadinium spinosum cultures. Anal Bioanal Chem 2012; 403:833-46. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-012-5849-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2011] [Revised: 02/03/2012] [Accepted: 02/07/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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O'Driscoll D, Skrabáková Z, O'Halloran J, van Pelt FNAM, James KJ. Mussels increase xenobiotic (azaspiracid) toxicity using a unique bioconversion mechanism. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2011; 45:3102-3108. [PMID: 21401083 DOI: 10.1021/es103612c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracid Poisoning (AZP) is a human toxic syndrome which is associated with the consumption of bivalve shellfish. Unlike other shellfish, mussels contain a large array of azaspiracid analogs, many of which are suspected bioconversion products. These studies were conducted to elucidate the metabolic pathways of azaspiracid (AZA1) in the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) and revealed that the main biotransformation product was the more toxic demethyl analog, AZA3. To elucidate the mechanism of this C-demethylation, an unprecedented xenobiotic bioconversion step in shellfish, AZA1 was fed to mussels that contained no detectable azaspiracids. Triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (MS) and high resolution Orbitrap MS were used to determine the uptake of AZA1 and the toxin profiles in three tissue compartments of mussels. The second most abundant bioconversion product was identified as AZA17, a carboxyl analog of AZA3, which is a key intermediate in the formation of AZA3. Also, two pairs of isomeric hydroxyl analogs, AZA4/AZA5 and AZA7/AZA8, have been confirmed as bioconversion products for the first time. Ultra high resolution (100 k) MS studies showed that the most probable structural assignment for AZA17 is 22-carboxy-AZA3 and a mechanism for its facile decarboxylation to form AZA3 has been proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel O'Driscoll
- PROTEOBIO (Mass Spectrometry Centre), Cork Institute of Technology, Bishopstown, Cork, Ireland
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Skrabáková Z, O'Halloran J, van Pelt FNAM, James KJ. Food contaminant analysis at ultra-high mass resolution: application of hybrid linear ion trap - orbitrap mass spectrometry for the determination of the polyether toxins, azaspiracids, in shellfish. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2010; 24:2966-2974. [PMID: 20872629 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.4724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
The biotoxins, azaspiracids (AZAs), from marine phytoplankton accumulate in shellfish and affect human health by causing severe gastrointestinal disturbance, diarrhea, nausea and vomiting. Specific and sensitive methods have been developed and validated for the determination of the most commonly occurring azaspiracid analogs. An LTQ Orbitrap mass spectrometer is a hybrid instrument that combines linear ion trap (LIT) mass spectrometry (MS) with high-resolution Fourier transform (FT) MS and this was exploited to perform simultaneous ultra-high-resolution full-scan MS analysis and collision-induced dissociation (CID) tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). Using the highest mass resolution setting (100,000 FWHM) in full-scan mode, the methodology was validated for the determination of six AZAs in mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) tissue extracts. Ultra-high mass resolution, together with a narrow mass tolerance window of ±2 mDa, dramatically improved detection sensitivity. In addition to employing chromatographic resolution to distinguish between the isomeric azaspiracid analogs, AZA1/AZA6 and AZA4/AZA5, higher energy collisionally induced dissociation (HCD) fragmentation on selected precursor ions were performed in parallel with full-scan FTMS. Using HCD MS/MS, most precursor and product ion masses were determined within 1 ppm of the theoretical m/z values throughout the mass spectral range and this enhanced the reliability of analyte identity.For the analysis of mussels (M. galloprovincialis), the method limit of quantitation (LOQ) was 0.010 µg/g using full-scan FTMS and this was comparable with the LOQ (0.007 µg/g) using CID MS/MS. The repeatability data were; intra-day RSD% (1.8-4.4%; n = 6) and inter-day RSD% (4.7-8.6%; n = 3). Application of these methods to the analysis of mussels (M. edulis) that were naturally contaminated with azaspiracids, using high-resolution full-scan Orbitrap MS and low-resolution CID MS/MS, produced equivalent quantitative data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuzana Skrabáková
- PROTEOBIO (Mass Spectrometry Centre), Cork Institute of Technology, Bishopstown, Cork, Ireland
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Canás IR, O’Callaghan K, Moroney C, Hamilton B, James KJ, Furey A. The development of a rapid method for the isolation of four azaspiracids for use as reference materials for quantitative LC–MS–MS methods. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010; 398:1477-91. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-010-4007-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2010] [Revised: 07/02/2010] [Accepted: 07/05/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Furey A, O'Doherty S, O'Callaghan K, Lehane M, James KJ. Azaspiracid poisoning (AZP) toxins in shellfish: Toxicological and health considerations. Toxicon 2010; 56:173-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2008] [Accepted: 09/18/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Abstract
Five major human toxic syndromes caused by the consumption of shellfish contaminated by algal toxins are presented. The increased risks to humans of shellfish toxicity from the prevalence of harmful algal blooms (HABs) may be a consequence of large-scale ecological changes from anthropogenic activities, especially increased eutrophication, marine transport and aquaculture, and global climate change. Improvements in toxin detection methods and increased toxin surveillance programmes are positive developments in limiting human exposure to shellfish toxins.
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López-Rivera A, O’Callaghan K, Moriarty M, O’Driscoll D, Hamilton B, Lehane M, James K, Furey A. First evidence of azaspiracids (AZAs): A family of lipophilic polyether marine toxins in scallops (Argopecten purpuratus) and mussels (Mytilus chilensis) collected in two regions of Chile. Toxicon 2010; 55:692-701. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.10.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2009] [Revised: 10/12/2009] [Accepted: 10/14/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Impact of marine drugs on cytoskeleton-mediated reproductive events. Mar Drugs 2010; 8:881-915. [PMID: 20479959 PMCID: PMC2866467 DOI: 10.3390/md8040881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2010] [Revised: 03/02/2010] [Accepted: 03/23/2010] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Marine organisms represent an important source of novel bioactive compounds, often showing unique modes of action. Such drugs may be useful tools to study complex processes such as reproduction; which is characterized by many crucial steps that start at gamete maturation and activation and virtually end at the first developmental stages. During these processes cytoskeletal elements such as microfilaments and microtubules play a key-role. In this review we describe: (i) the involvement of such structures in both cellular and in vitro processes; (ii) the toxins that target the cytoskeletal elements and dynamics; (iii) the main steps of reproduction and the marine drugs that interfere with these cytoskeleton-mediated processes. We show that marine drugs, acting on microfilaments and microtubules, exert a wide range of impacts on reproductive events including sperm maturation and motility, oocyte maturation, fertilization, and early embryo development.
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Cao Z, LePage KT, Frederick MO, Nicolaou KC, Murray TF. Involvement of caspase activation in azaspiracid-induced neurotoxicity in neocortical neurons. Toxicol Sci 2010; 114:323-34. [PMID: 20047973 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfp312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are a novel group of marine phycotoxins that have been associated with severe human intoxication. We found that AZA-1 exposure increased lactate dehydrogense (LDH) efflux in murine neocortical neurons. AZA-1 also produced nuclear condensation and stimulated caspase-3 activity with an half maximal effective concentration (EC(50)) value of 25.8 nM. These data indicate that AZA-1 triggers neuronal death in neocortical neurons by both necrotic and apoptotic mechanisms. An evaluation of the structure-activity relationships of AZA analogs on LDH efflux and caspase-3 activation demonstrated that the full structure of AZAs was required to produce necrotic or apoptotic cell death. The similar potencies of AZA-1 to stimulate LDH efflux and caspase-3 activation and the parallel structure-activity relationships of azaspiracid analogs in the two assays are consistent with a common molecular target for both responses. To explore the molecular mechanism for AZA-1-induced neurotoxicity, we assessed the influence of AZA-1 on Ca(2+) homeostasis. AZA-1 suppressed spontaneous Ca(2+) oscillations (EC(50) = 445 nM) in neocortical neurons. A distinct structure-activity profile was found for inhibition of Ca(2+) oscillations where both the full structure as well as analogs containing only the FGHI domain attached to a phenyl glycine methyl ester moiety were potent inhibitors. The molecular targets for inhibition of spontaneous Ca(2+) oscillations and neurotoxicity may therefore differ. The caspase protease inhibitor Z-VAD-FMK produced a complete elimination of AZA-1-induced LDH efflux and nuclear condensation in neocortical neurons. Although the molecular target for AZA-induced neurotoxicity remains to be established, these results demonstrate that the observed neurotoxicity is dependent on a caspase signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhengyu Cao
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Creighton University, Omaha, Nebraska 68178, USA
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Phycotoxins: chemistry, mechanisms of action and shellfish poisoning. EXPERIENTIA SUPPLEMENTUM 2010; 100:65-122. [PMID: 20358682 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-7643-8338-1_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Use of biosensors as alternatives to current regulatory methods for marine biotoxins. SENSORS 2009; 9:9414-43. [PMID: 22291571 PMCID: PMC3260648 DOI: 10.3390/s91109414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2009] [Revised: 10/27/2009] [Accepted: 10/28/2009] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Marine toxins are currently monitored by means of a bioassay that requires the use of many mice, which poses a technical and ethical problem in many countries. With the exception of domoic acid, there is a legal requirement for the presence of other toxins (yessotoxin, saxitoxin and analogs, okadaic acid and analogs, pectenotoxins and azaspiracids) in seafood to be controlled by bioassay, but other toxins, such as palytoxin, cyclic imines, ciguatera and tetrodotoxin are potentially present in European food and there are no legal requirements or technical approaches available to identify their presence. The need for alternative methods to the bioassay is clearly important, and biosensors have become in recent years a feasible alternative to animal sacrifice. This review will discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using biosensors as alternatives to animal assays for marine toxins, with particular focus on surface plasmon resonance (SPR) technology.
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Vale C, Nicolaou KC, Frederick MO, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Cell volume decrease as a link between azaspiracid-induced cytotoxicity and c-Jun-N-terminal kinase activation in cultured neurons. Toxicol Sci 2009; 113:158-68. [PMID: 19815690 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfp246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are a group of marine toxins recently described that currently includes 20 members. Not much is known about their mechanism of action, although the predominant analog in nature, AZA-1 targets several organs in vivo, including the central nervous system, and exhibits high neurotoxicity in vitro. AZA distribution is increasing globally with mussels being most widely implicated in AZA-related food poisoning events, with human poisoning by AZAs emerging as an increasing worldwide problem in recent years. We used pharmacological tools to inhibit the cytotoxic effect of the toxin in primary cultured neurons. Several targets for AZA-induced neurotoxicity were evaluated. AZA-1 elicited a concentration-dependent hyperpolarization in cerebellar granule cells of 2-3 days in vitro; however, it did not modify membrane potential in mature neurons. Furthermore, in immature cells, AZA-1 decreased the membrane depolarization evoked by exposure of the neurons to 50mM K(+). Preincubation of the neurons with 4,4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid (DIDS), 4-acetamido-4'-isothiocyanato-2,2'-stilbenedisulfonic acid (SITS), 5-nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino)benzoic acid (NPPB), amiloride, or ouabain before addition of AZA-1 decreased the AZA-1-induced neurotoxicity and the increase in phosphorylated c-Jun-N-terminal kinase (JNK) caused by the toxin, indicating that disruption in ion fluxes was involved in the neurotoxic effect of AZA-1. Furthermore, short exposures of cultured neurons to AZA-1 caused a significant decrease in neuronal volume that was reverted by preincubation of the neurons with DIDS or amiloride before addition of the toxin. The results presented here indicate that the JNK activation induced by AZA-1 is secondary to the decrease in cellular volume elicited by the toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Vale
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain
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Frederick MO, Janda KD, Nicolaou KC, Dickerson TJ. Monoclonal antibodies with orthogonal azaspiracid epitopes. Chembiochem 2009; 10:1625-9. [PMID: 19492388 PMCID: PMC2750835 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.200900201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2009] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Azaspiracid antibodies: Immunization of azaspiracid immunoconjugates has elicited monoclonal antibodies with distinct epitopes on the marine toxin; this will open the way toward azaspiracid diagnostics and the detection of contaminated shellfish before they can enter the food supply.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael O. Frederick
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute of Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037 (USA) and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093 (USA)
| | - Kim D. Janda
- Departments of Chemistry and Immunology, The Skaggs Institute of Chemical Biology and Worm Institute for Research and Medicine (WIRM), The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037 (USA)
| | - K. C. Nicolaou
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute of Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037 (USA) and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093 (USA)
| | - Tobin J. Dickerson
- Department of Chemistry and Worm Institute for Research and Medicine (WIRM), The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037 (USA)
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40
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Performance of the EU-harmonised mouse bioassay for lipophilic toxins for the detection of azaspiracids in naturally contaminated mussel (Mytilus edulis) hepatopancreas tissue homogenates characterised by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. Toxicon 2009; 53:713-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2008] [Revised: 02/13/2009] [Accepted: 02/13/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Ueoka R, Ito A, Izumikawa M, Maeda S, Takagi M, Shin-ya K, Yoshida M, van Soest RW, Matsunaga S. Isolation of azaspiracid-2 from a marine sponge Echinoclathria sp. as a potent cytotoxin. Toxicon 2009; 53:680-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2008] [Revised: 01/30/2009] [Accepted: 02/02/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Kellmann R, Schaffner CA, Grønset TA, Satake M, Ziegler M, Fladmark KE. Proteomic response of human neuroblastoma cells to azaspiracid-1. J Proteomics 2009; 72:695-707. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2009.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2008] [Revised: 02/11/2009] [Accepted: 02/16/2009] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Rundberget T, Gustad E, Samdal IA, Sandvik M, Miles CO. A convenient and cost-effective method for monitoring marine algal toxins with passive samplers. Toxicon 2009; 53:543-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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McCarron P, Kilcoyne J, Miles CO, Hess P. Formation of Azaspiracids-3, -4, -6, and -9 via decarboxylation of carboxyazaspiracid metabolites from shellfish. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2009; 57:160-169. [PMID: 19055365 DOI: 10.1021/jf8025138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The azaspiracid (AZA) class of phycotoxins has been responsible for extended closures of shellfisheries in various locations around Europe, where levels of AZA1-3 are regulated in shellfish. Since their discovery in 1995, AZAs have been the focus of much research, resulting in the discovery of numerous analogues. During studies of procedures for processing of AZA-contaminated mussels ( Mytilus edulis ), an unusual phenomenon was observed involving AZA3. In uncooked tissues, AZA3 levels would increase significantly when heated for short periods of time in the absence of water loss. A similar increase in AZA3 concentrations occurred during storage of shellfish tissue reference materials for several months at temperatures as low as 4 degrees C. Concentrations of AZA1 and AZA2 did not change during these experiments. Several possible explanations were investigated, including an AZA3-specific matrix effect upon heating of tissues, release of AZA3 from the matrix, and formation of AZA3 from a precursor. Preliminary experiments indicated that toxin conversion was responsible, and more detailed studies focused on this possibility. LC-MS analysis of heating trials, deuterium labeling experiments, and kinetic studies demonstrated that a carboxylated AZA analogue, AZA17, undergoes rapid decarboxylation when heated to produce AZA3. Heat-induced decarboxylation of AZA19, AZA21, and AZA23 to form AZA6, AZA4, and AZA9, respectively, was also demonstrated. This finding is of great significance in terms of procedures used in the processing of shellfish for regulatory analysis, and it exemplifies the role that chemical analysis can play in understanding the contribution of metabolic processes to the toxin profiles observed in shellfish samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pearse McCarron
- Marine Environment and Food Safety Services, Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway, Ireland.
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Evans DA, Kvaernø L, Dunn TB, Beauchemin A, Raymer B, Mulder JA, Olhava EJ, Juhl M, Kagechika K, Favor DA. Total synthesis of (+)-azaspiracid-1. An exhibition of the intricacies of complex molecule synthesis. J Am Chem Soc 2008; 130:16295-309. [PMID: 19006391 PMCID: PMC3408805 DOI: 10.1021/ja804659n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The synthesis of the marine neurotoxin azaspiracid-1 has been accomplished. The individual fragments were synthesized by catalytic enantioselective processes: A hetero-Diels-Alder reaction to afford the E- and HI-ring fragments, a carbonyl-ene reaction to furnish the CD-ring fragment, and a Mukaiyama aldol reaction to deliver the FG-ring fragment. The subsequent fragment couplings were accomplished by aldol and sulfone anion methodologies. All ketalization events to form the nonacyclic target were accomplished under equilibrating conditions utilizing the imbedded configurations of the molecule to adopt one favored conformation. A final fragment coupling of the anomeric EFGHI-sulfone anion to the ABCD-aldehyde completed the convergent synthesis of (+)-azaspiracid-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Evans
- Department of Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA.
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Alfonso C, Rehmann N, Hess P, Alfonso A, Wandscheer CB, Abuín M, Vale C, Otero P, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Evaluation of Various pH and Temperature Conditions on the Stability of Azaspiracids and Their Importance in Preparative Isolation and Toxicological Studies. Anal Chem 2008; 80:9672-80. [DOI: 10.1021/ac801506d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Alfonso
- Departamentos de Farmacología y Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway, Ireland, and School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Sciences, University College Dublin, Belfield Campus, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Nils Rehmann
- Departamentos de Farmacología y Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway, Ireland, and School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Sciences, University College Dublin, Belfield Campus, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Philipp Hess
- Departamentos de Farmacología y Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway, Ireland, and School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Sciences, University College Dublin, Belfield Campus, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Amparo Alfonso
- Departamentos de Farmacología y Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway, Ireland, and School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Sciences, University College Dublin, Belfield Campus, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Carolina B. Wandscheer
- Departamentos de Farmacología y Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway, Ireland, and School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Sciences, University College Dublin, Belfield Campus, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - María Abuín
- Departamentos de Farmacología y Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway, Ireland, and School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Sciences, University College Dublin, Belfield Campus, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Carmen Vale
- Departamentos de Farmacología y Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway, Ireland, and School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Sciences, University College Dublin, Belfield Campus, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Paz Otero
- Departamentos de Farmacología y Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway, Ireland, and School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Sciences, University College Dublin, Belfield Campus, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Mercedes R. Vieytes
- Departamentos de Farmacología y Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway, Ireland, and School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Sciences, University College Dublin, Belfield Campus, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Luis M. Botana
- Departamentos de Farmacología y Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain, Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway, Ireland, and School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Sciences, University College Dublin, Belfield Campus, Dublin 4, Ireland
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Vale C, Wandscheer C, Nicolaou K, Frederick MO, Alfonso C, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Cytotoxic effect of azaspiracid-2 and azaspiracid-2-methyl ester in cultured neurons: Involvement of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase. J Neurosci Res 2008; 86:2952-62. [DOI: 10.1002/jnr.21731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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Marine biotoxins in shellfish – Azaspiracid group ‐ Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Contaminants in the Food chain. EFSA J 2008. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2008.723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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