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Yamamoto Y, Ishihara M, Kurokawa A, Mase M. Susceptibility and Pathogenesis of Eurasian Tree Sparrows Experimentally Inoculated with Velogenic Newcastle Disease Virus. Avian Dis 2023; 67:57-64. [PMID: 37140112 DOI: 10.1637/aviandiseases-d-22-00082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Abstract
Wild-caught Eurasian tree sparrows (Passer montanus) were experimentally inoculated with genotype VII velogenic Newcastle disease virus (NDV) APMV1/chicken/Japan/Fukuoka-1/2004 to investigate the susceptibility and pathogenesis of infected sparrows. Intranasal inoculation of two groups with high or low doses of the virus resulted in the mortality of some birds in both groups on days 7-15 postinoculation. Neurologic signs, ruffled feathers, labored breathing, emaciation, diarrhea, depression, and ataxia were observed in a few birds that eventually succumbed to death. The inoculation of the higher viral load resulted in higher mortality and hemagglutination inhibition antibody detection rates. Tree sparrows that survived the 18-day observation period after inoculation exhibited no apparent clinical signs. Histologic lesions in dead birds were observed in the nasal mucosa, orbital ganglion, and central nervous system, accompanied by NDV antigens detected by immunohistochemistry. Viral inclusion bodies were rarely observed in the cytoplasm of neurons. NDV was isolated from the oral swab and brain of dead birds but not from other organs, including the lung, heart, muscle, colon, and liver. In another experimental group, tree sparrows were intranasally inoculated with the virus and then examined 1-3 days later to examine the early pathogenesis of the disease. Inoculated birds exhibited inflammation of the nasal mucosa with viral antigens, and virus was isolated from some oral swab samples on days 2 and 3 postinoculation. The results of the present study suggest that tree sparrows are susceptible to velogenic NDV, and the infection could be fatal, although some birds can exhibit asymptomatic or mild infection. The unique pathogenesis regarding the neurologic signs and viral neurotropism of velogenic NDV was characteristic in infected tree sparrows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Yamamoto
- National Institute of Animal Health, 3-1-5 Kannondai, Tsukuba, 305-0856, Japan
| | - Miki Ishihara
- Toyama East Livestock Hygiene Center, 46 Mizuhashikanaoshin, Toyama, 939-3536, Japan
| | - Aoi Kurokawa
- National Institute of Animal Health, 3-1-5 Kannondai, Tsukuba, 305-0856, Japan
| | - Masaji Mase
- National Institute of Animal Health, 3-1-5 Kannondai, Tsukuba, 305-0856, Japan
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2
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Matsunaga N, Ijiri M, Ishikawa K, Ozawa M, Okuya K, Khalil AM, Kojima I, Esaki M, Masatani T, Matsui T, Fujimoto Y. Avian paramyxovirus serotype-1 isolation from migratory birds and environmental water in southern Japan: An epidemiological survey during the 2018/19-2021/2022 winter seasons. Microbiol Immunol 2023; 67:185-193. [PMID: 36628409 DOI: 10.1111/1348-0421.13053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Newcastle disease caused by highly pathogenic viruses of avian paramyxovirus serotype-1 (APMV-1) is a highly contagious poultry disease. Although a large-scale epidemic of Newcastle disease had occurred in Japan between the 1950s and the 2000s, there have been no outbreaks anywhere since 2010. In addition, there are no reports of epidemiological surveys of APMV-1 in wild birds in Japan in the last 10 years. We conducted the first epidemiological survey of APMV-1 in the Izumi plain, Kagoshima prefecture of southern Japan from the winter of 2018 to 2022. A total of 15 APMV-1 strains were isolated, and isolation rates from roosting water and duck fecal samples were 2.51% and 0.10%, respectively. These results indicate that the isolation method from environmental water may be useful for efficient surveillance of APMV-1 in wild birds. Furthermore, this is the first report on the success of APMV-1 isolation from environmental water samples. Genetic analysis of the Fusion (F) gene showed that all APMV-1 isolates were closely related to virus strains circulating among waterfowl in Far East Asian countries. All isolates have avirulent motifs in their cleavage site of F genes, all of which were presumed to be low pathogenic viruses in poultry. However, pathogenicity test using embryonated chicken eggs demonstrated that some isolates killed all chicken embryos regardless of viral doses inoculated (102 -106 50% egg infectious dose). These results indicated that APMV-1 strains, which are potentially pathogenic to chickens, are continuously brought into the Izumi plain by migrating wild birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nonoka Matsunaga
- Transboundary Animal Diseases Research Center, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Moe Ijiri
- Transboundary Animal Diseases Research Center, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Kemi Ishikawa
- Transboundary Animal Diseases Research Center, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Makoto Ozawa
- Transboundary Animal Diseases Research Center, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan.,Joint Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan.,Kagoshima Crane Conservation Committee, Izumi, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Kosuke Okuya
- Transboundary Animal Diseases Research Center, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan.,Joint Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Ahmed Magdy Khalil
- Joint Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Isshu Kojima
- Joint Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Mana Esaki
- Joint Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Tatsunori Masatani
- Transboundary Animal Diseases Research Center, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan.,Laboratory of Zoonotic Diseases, Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan
| | - Tsutomu Matsui
- Kagoshima Crane Conservation Committee, Izumi, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Yoshikazu Fujimoto
- Transboundary Animal Diseases Research Center, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan.,Joint Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
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3
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Kabir H, Hakim H, Alizada MN, Hasan A, Miyaoka Y, Yamaguchi M, Shoham D, Takehara K. Isolation, Identification, and Molecular Characterization of Newcastle Disease Virus from Field Outbreaks in Chickens in Afghanistan. Avian Dis 2022; 66:176-180. [PMID: 35723930 DOI: 10.1637/aviandiseases-d-22-00002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Newcastle disease viruses (NDVs) in Afghanistan were isolated from three chicken farms and identified using a hemagglutination test and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction assay. Three isolates from each farm were sequenced to characterize the part of their fusion protein gene around the cleavage site. The characteristics of the fusion protein genes of the three isolates shown by phylogenic analysis indicated that the isolates were velogenic, belonged to the class II subgenotype VII 1.1, and were closely related to an identified Chinese NDV isolate. To our knowledge, this is the first time that NDV isolates from Afghanistan have been partially sequenced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Humayun Kabir
- Laboratory of Animal Health, Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo 183-8509, Japan
| | - Hakimullah Hakim
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Paraclinic, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Kabul University, Jamal Mina, Kabul 1006, Afghanistan
| | - Mohammad Naiem Alizada
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Paraclinic, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Kabul University, Jamal Mina, Kabul 1006, Afghanistan
| | - Amirul Hasan
- Laboratory of Animal Health, Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo 183-8509, Japan
| | - Yu Miyaoka
- Laboratory of Animal Health, Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo 183-8509, Japan
| | - Makiko Yamaguchi
- Laboratory of Animal Health, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo 183-8509, Japan
| | - Dany Shoham
- Bar-Ilan University, Begin-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies, Ramat Gan, 5290002, Israel
| | - Kazuaki Takehara
- Laboratory of Animal Health, Cooperative Division of Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo 183-8509, Japan, .,Laboratory of Animal Health, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo 183-8509, Japan
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4
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Mase M. Hemagglutinin-neuraminidase gene of genotype VII Newcastle disease virus strains isolated in Japan. J Vet Med Sci 2021; 84:1-5. [PMID: 34789612 PMCID: PMC8810338 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.21-0490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, genotype VII of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) has become the most prevalent NDV genotype in Asia. Here the hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) gene of genotype VII NDV strains isolated in Japan was analyzed. Notably, point amino acid substitutions in the HN protein at position 347, which is located on the major linear epitope of the HN protein, were found in two strains. However, by a hemagglutination inhibition assay, major antigenic differences did not exist between the studied strains. Additionally, chickens vaccinated with the B1 strain did not exhibit clinical effects after challenge with variants possessing the substitution at position 347 (E to K), whereas all unvaccinated chickens subjected to this challenge died within 5 days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaji Mase
- National Institute of Animal Health.,United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University
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Rehman ZU, Meng C, Sun Y, Mahrose KM, Umar S, Ding C, Munir M. Pathobiology of Avian avulavirus 1: special focus on waterfowl. Vet Res 2018; 49:94. [PMID: 30231933 PMCID: PMC6148804 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-018-0587-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Avian avulaviruses serotype 1 (abbreviated as APMV-1 for the historical name avian paramyxovirus 1) are capable of infecting a wide spectrum of avian species with variable clinical symptoms and outcomes. Ease of transmission has allowed the virus to spread worldwide with varying degrees of virulence depending upon the virus strain and host species. The emergence of new virulent genotypes from global epizootics, and the year-to-year genomic changes in low and high virulence APMV-1 imply that distinct genotypes of APMV-1 are simultaneously evolving at different geographic locations across the globe. This vast genomic diversity may be favoured by large variety of avian species susceptibility to APMV-1 infection, and by the availability of highly mobile wild birds. It has long been considered that waterfowls are not sensitive to APMV-1 and are unable to show any clinical signs, however, outbreaks from the 90's contradict these concepts. The APMV-1 isolates are increasingly reported from the waterfowl. Waterfowl have strong innate immune responses, which minimize the impact of virus infection, however, are unable to prevent the viral shedding. Numerous APMV-1 are carried by domestic waterfowl intermingling with terrestrial poultry. Therefore, commercial ducks and geese should be vaccinated against APMV-1 to minimize the virus shedding and for the prevention the transmission. Genetic diversity within APMV-1 demonstrates the need for continual monitoring of viral evolution and periodic updates of vaccine seed-strains to achieve efficient control and eradication of APMV-1 in waterfowls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zaib Ur Rehman
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute (SHVRI), Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Shanghai, 200241, China.,Department of Poultry Science, Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, PMAS Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, 46300, Pakistan
| | - Chunchun Meng
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute (SHVRI), Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Shanghai, 200241, China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, 225009, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Yingjie Sun
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute (SHVRI), Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Khalid M Mahrose
- Poultry Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, Zagazig, 44511, Egypt
| | - Sajid Umar
- Department of Poultry Science, Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, PMAS Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, 46300, Pakistan
| | - Chan Ding
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute (SHVRI), Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Shanghai, 200241, China. .,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, 225009, China. .,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Shanghai, 200241, China.
| | - Muhammad Munir
- Biomedical and Life Sciences, Lancaster University, Lancaster, LA1 4YG, UK
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6
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Xu Q, Chen Y, Zhao W, Zhang T, Liu C, Qi T, Han Z, Shao Y, Ma D, Liu S. Infection of Goose with Genotype VIId Newcastle Disease Virus of Goose Origin Elicits Strong Immune Responses at Early Stage. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:1587. [PMID: 27757109 PMCID: PMC5047883 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.01587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2016] [Accepted: 09/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Newcastle disease (ND), caused by virulent strains of Newcastle disease virus (NDV), is a highly contagious disease of birds that is responsible for heavy economic losses for the poultry industry worldwide. However, little is known about host-virus interactions in waterfowl, goose. In this study, we aim to characterize the host immune response in goose, based on the previous reports on the host response to NDV in chickens. Here, we evaluated viral replication and mRNA expression of 27 immune-related genes in 10 tissues of geese challenged with a genotype VIId NDV strain of goose origin (go/CH/LHLJ/1/06). The virus showed early replication, especially in digestive and immune tissues. The expression profiles showed up-regulation of Toll-like receptor (TLR)1–3, 5, 7, and 15, avian β-defensin (AvBD) 5–7, 10, 12, and 16, cytokines [interleukin (IL)-8, IL-18, IL-1β, and interferon-γ], inducible NO synthase (iNOS), and MHC class I in some tissues of geese in response to NDV. In contrast, NDV infection suppressed expression of AvBD1 in cecal tonsil of geese. Moreover, we observed a highly positive correlation between viral replication and host mRNA expressions of TLR1-5 and 7, AvBD4-6, 10, and 12, all the cytokines measured, MHC class I, FAS ligand, and iNOS, mainly at 72 h post-infection. Taken together, these results demonstrated that NDV infection induces strong innate immune responses and intense inflammatory responses at early stage in goose which may associate with the viral pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qianqian Xu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural UniversityHarbin, China; Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesHarbin, China
| | - Yuqiu Chen
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural UniversityHarbin, China; Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesHarbin, China
| | - Wenjun Zhao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural UniversityHarbin, China; Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesHarbin, China
| | - Tingting Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural UniversityHarbin, China; Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesHarbin, China
| | - Chenggang Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural UniversityHarbin, China; Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesHarbin, China
| | - Tianming Qi
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural UniversityHarbin, China; Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesHarbin, China
| | - Zongxi Han
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Harbin, China
| | - Yuhao Shao
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Harbin, China
| | - Deying Ma
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northeast Agricultural University Harbin, China
| | - Shengwang Liu
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Harbin, China
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7
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Complete genome sequence of pigeon circovirus detected in racing pigeons in western Japan. Virus Genes 2015; 51:140-3. [DOI: 10.1007/s11262-015-1211-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2015] [Accepted: 05/20/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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8
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Mase M, Kanehira K. Phylogenetic analysis of avian paramyxovirus serotype-1 in pigeons in Japan. J Vet Med Sci 2015; 77:919-23. [PMID: 25797040 PMCID: PMC4565813 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.14-0684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
To understand the epidemiology of Avian paramyxovirus serotype-1 (APMV-1) in pigeons in Japan, phylogenetic analysis was comprehensively conducted based on partial fusion protein gene using isolate from the surveillance of this virus with previously known Japanese pigeon strains. This surveillance was conducted using feces obtained from domestic pigeons collected in 40 prefectures throughout Japan from June 2011 to March 2013. From a total of 1,021 samples, a single virus (APMV1/pigeon/Japan/Kanagawa/2013: JP/Kanagawa-pg/2013) was isolated. All Japanese pigeon APMV-1 strains were clustered into a single genetic lineage, which was termed VIb/1 by phylogenetic analysis based on the F gene including the sequence of the cleavage site. These APMV-1 strains were further subdivided into four subgroups identified over 4 separate timeframes: 1984–1995 (group 1), 1995–2000 (group 2), 2001–2007 (group 3) and the novel subgroup isolated in 2013 (group 4). Each subgroup has specific
amino acid motifs at a cleavage site of the F protein, namely, 112GRQKR-F117(except for one strain), 112RRKKR-F117, 112RRQKR-F117 and 112RRQKR-F117, respectively. Our data suggest that Japanese APMV-1 strains from pigeons were diverse and reinforced the possibility that there were multiple introduction routes from foreign countries into Japan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaji Mase
- National Institute of Animal Health, 3-1-5 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0856, Japan
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9
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Liu J, Cong Y, Yin R, Ding C, Yu S, Liu X, Wang C, Ding Z. The deletion of an extra six nucleotides in the 5' -untranslated region of the nucleoprotein gene of Newcastle disease virus NA-1 decreases virulence. BMC Vet Res 2014; 10:964. [PMID: 25528581 PMCID: PMC4297397 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-014-0305-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2014] [Accepted: 12/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The virulent Newcastle disease virus (NDV) strain NA-1 (genotype VII) was isolated from an epizootic involving a flock of geese in Jilin Province, Northeast China, in 1999. Compared with the classical NDV strains, which have a genome size of 15,186 bp, the more recently isolated NDV strains, including that involved in the goose outbreak, have an extra six nucleotides in the 5′-untranslated region (UTR) of the nucleoprotein (NP) gene. This extra sequence, TCCCAC, is highly conserved and has been found in multiple NDV strains, including ZJ-1, WF00G, JSG0210, and NA-1. In the current study, an infectious clone from strain NA-1 was isolated and designated rNA-1. Subsequently, strain rNA-1 was mutated to delete the six-nucleotide insertion, producing strain rNA-1(−). Virulence of the recombinant virus was then assayed in chickens and geese. Results The recombinant virus rNA-1(−) showed similar biological characteristics to the parental NA-1 strain in DF-1 chicken fibroblast cells. However, the virulence of rNA-1(−) in 9-day-old embryonated chicken eggs and 1-day-old specific pathogen-free (SPF) chickens was decreased compared with the rNA-1 control. Furthermore, the virulence of the recombinant strain was slightly decreased in 1-day-old SPF chickens when compared with that in 1-day-old geese. Conclusion Following deletion of six nucleotides in the 5′-UTR of the NP gene of NDV strain NA-1, the virulence of the rNA-1(−) recombinant strain was decreased in both chickens and geese. However, rNA-1(−) was more virulent in chickens than geese, as seen by the higher intracerebral pathogenicity index value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaxu Liu
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China.
| | - Yanlong Cong
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China.
| | - Renfu Yin
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China.
| | - Chan Ding
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China.
| | - Shengqing Yu
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, China.
| | - Xiufan Liu
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China.
| | - Chunfeng Wang
- Engineering Research Center of Jilin Province for Animals Probiotics, College of Animal Science and Technology, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, 130118, China. .,Engineering Research Center of Chinese Ministry of Education for Edible and Medicinal Fungi, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, 130118, China.
| | - Zhuang Ding
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China.
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10
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Mase M, Kanehira K. Surveillance of avian paramyxovirus serotype-1 in migratory waterfowls in Japan between 2011 and 2013. J Vet Med Sci 2014; 77:381-5. [PMID: 25482820 PMCID: PMC4383790 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.14-0550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
To further understand the epidemiology of avian paramyxovirus serotype-1 (APMV-1) in
migratory waterfowls in Japan, we conducted the surveillance of this virus from feces
derived from the migratory waterfowls collected in 41 Japanese prefectures between October
2011 and March 2013. Six APMV-1 viruses were isolated from total 661 samples. All isolates
were identified as the avirulent (lentogenic) type on the basis of intracerebral
pathogenicity tests. Genetic analysis showed that these viruses possessed the deduced
amino acid sequence of 112GKQGR-L117 or
112ERQER-L117 at the cleavage site of the F0 protein, which was
identical to the motif in the avirulent type. Phylogenetic analysis based on the partial
fusion protein gene classified these APMV-1 isolates into 2 major genetic groups. Four
isolates were classified as class II genotype I, and they were genetically closely related
to strains isolated in Asian countries, including Japan. In contrast, two isolates were
classified as class I, and they were genetically closely related to strains mainly
isolated in the U.S.A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaji Mase
- National Institute of Animal Health, 3-1-5 Kannondai, Ibaraki 305-0856; United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido 501-1193, Japan.
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Characterization of genotype IX Newcastle disease virus strains isolated from wild birds in the northern Qinling Mountains, China. Virus Genes 2013; 48:48-55. [DOI: 10.1007/s11262-013-0987-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2013] [Accepted: 09/24/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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12
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Liu H, Zhang P, Wu P, Chen S, Mu G, Duan X, Hao H, Du E, Wang X, Yang Z. Phylogenetic characterization and virulence of two Newcastle disease viruses isolated from wild birds in China. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2013; 20:215-24. [PMID: 23999544 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2013.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2013] [Revised: 08/19/2013] [Accepted: 08/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Wild birds are considered as a natural reservoir of Newcastle disease virus (NDV). However, there is no information about genotype IX NDV from wild birds, especially from Columbiformes. In this study, two genotype IX NDV viruses were isolated from wild birds. One was from Eurasian Blackbird, while the other was from Spotted-necked dove. After purification by plaque technique, complete genomes of both viruses were sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis of partial fusion (F) gene and complete genome indicated both strains belonged to genotype IX. Based on intracerebral pathogenicity index (ICPI), the virus from Eurasian Blackbird was velogenic virus, while the strain from Spotted-necked dove was lentogenic virus. However, both strains showed one of velogenic cleavage sites. In addition, the strain from Eurasian Blackbird showed greater replication ability and generated larger fusion foci in vitro than that of strain from Spotted-necked dove. Comparing all the corresponding protein sequences of both strains, there were only 9 different amino acid residues between them. Furthermore, after analysis of these differences, the information about lentogenic NDV with multi-basic cleavage site was presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haijin Liu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A & F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, PR China
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Chong YL, Lam TTY, Kim O, Lu H, Dunn P, Poss M. Successful establishment and global dispersal of genotype VI avian paramyxovirus serotype 1 after cross species transmission. INFECTION, GENETICS AND EVOLUTION : JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY AND EVOLUTIONARY GENETICS IN INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2013; 17:260-8. [PMID: 23628639 PMCID: PMC7106292 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2013.04.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2013] [Revised: 04/08/2013] [Accepted: 04/22/2013] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The evolutionary history of avian paramyxovirus serotype 1 (PMV1), which includes the agents of Newcastle disease (ND), is characterized by a series of strain emergence events since viruses in this family were first recognized in the 1920s. Despite the importance of ND to the poultry industry, little is known about PMV1 strain emergence events and the subsequent dispersal and evolution of new strains. The genotype VI-PMV1 was first identified in the 1980s and has been named pigeon paramyxovirus-1 (PPMV1) because of unusual host specificity with Columbiformes (Collins et al., 1996); it has been responsible for panzootics in both chickens and pigeons during that time. Here, we used evolutionary analyses to characterize the emergence of this contemporary PMV1 lineage. We demonstrate that GVI-PMV1 arose through cross-species transmission events from Galliformes (i.e. chicken) to Columbiformes, and quickly established in pigeon populations. Our studies revealed a close association between the time of viral emergence and panzootic events of this virus. The virus appeared first in Southeastern Europe and quickly spread across the European continent, which became the epicenter for global virus dissemination. With new viral gene sequences, we show that GVI-PMV1 viruses currently circulating in North America resulted from multiple invasion events from Europe, one associated with an exotic European Columbiformes species, and that extant lineages have diversified locally. This study extends our understanding of successful viral emergence subsequent to cross-species transmission and dispersal patterns of newly emerged avian viruses, which may improve surveillance awareness and disease control of this and other important avian pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yee Ling Chong
- Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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Nooruzzaman M, Mazumder AC, Khatun S, Chowdhury EH, Das PM, Islam MR. Pathotypic and Genotypic Characterization of Two Bangladeshi Isolates of Newcastle Disease Virus of Chicken and Pigeon Origin. Transbound Emerg Dis 2013; 62:102-7. [DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2012] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- M. Nooruzzaman
- Department of Pathology; Faculty of Veterinary Science; Bangladesh Agricultural University; Mymensingh Bangladesh
| | - A. C. Mazumder
- Department of Pathology; Faculty of Veterinary Science; Bangladesh Agricultural University; Mymensingh Bangladesh
| | - S. Khatun
- Department of Pathology; Faculty of Veterinary Science; Bangladesh Agricultural University; Mymensingh Bangladesh
| | - E. H. Chowdhury
- Department of Pathology; Faculty of Veterinary Science; Bangladesh Agricultural University; Mymensingh Bangladesh
| | - P. M. Das
- Department of Pathology; Faculty of Veterinary Science; Bangladesh Agricultural University; Mymensingh Bangladesh
| | - M. R. Islam
- Department of Pathology; Faculty of Veterinary Science; Bangladesh Agricultural University; Mymensingh Bangladesh
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Mase M, Kanehira K. Simple differentiation of avirulent and virulent strains of avian paramyxovirus serotype-1 (Newcastle disease virus) by PCR and restriction endonuclease analysis in Japan. J Vet Med Sci 2012; 74:1661-4. [PMID: 22814085 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.12-0178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
To differentiate the avirulent from virulent strains of avian paramyxovirus serotype-1 (APMV-1, Newcastle disease virus), PCR and restriction endonuclease analysis (REA) was employed. Primer sequences were used to amplify a 766-base pair fragment that included the fusion protein cleavage site. REA of PCR products generated by Hin1 I and Apa I enabled the differentiation of avirulent field and vaccine strains from more virulent field strains of APMV-1 in Japan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaji Mase
- National Institute of Animal Health, 3-1-5 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0856, Japan
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16
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Munir M, Abbas M, Khan MT, Zohari S, Berg M. Genomic and biological characterization of a velogenic Newcastle disease virus isolated from a healthy backyard poultry flock in 2010. Virol J 2012; 9:46. [PMID: 22340092 PMCID: PMC3295720 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-9-46] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2011] [Accepted: 02/16/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Newcastle disease virus (NDV) causes severe and economically important disease in poultry around the globe. None of NDV strains in Pakistan have been completely characterized and the role of rural poultry in harbouring NDV is unclear. Since they have a very important role for long-term circulation of the virus, samples were collected from apparently healthy backyard poultry (BYP) flocks. These samples were biologically analyzed using mean death time (MDT) and intracerebral pathogenicity index (ICPI), whereas genotypically characterized by the real-time PCRs coupled with sequencing of the complete genome. FINDINGS Despite of being non-pathogenic for BYP, the isolate exhibited MDT of 49.6 h in embryonated chicken eggs and an ICPI value of 1.5. The F gene based real-time PCR was positive, whereas M-gene based was negative due to substantial changes in the probe-binding site. The entire genome of the isolate was found to be 15192 nucleotides long and encodes for six genes with an order of 3'-NP-P-M-F-HN-L-5'. The F protein cleavage site, an indicative of pathogenicity, was 112RRQKRF117. Complete genome comparison indicated that the RNA dependent RNA polymerase gene was the most and the phosphoprotein was least conserved gene, among all the genes. The isolate showed an Y526Q substitution in the HN protein, which determines neuraminidase receptor binding and fusion activity of NDV. Phylogenetic analysis, based on F and HN genes, classified this isolate into genotype VII, a predominant genotype responsible for ND outbreaks in Asian countries. However, it clustered well apart from other isolates in this genotype to be considered a new subgenotype (VII-f). CONCLUSIONS These results revealed that this isolate was similar to virulent strains of NDV and was avirulent in BYP either due to resistance of local breeds or due to other factors such as substantial mutations in the HN protein. Furthermore, we have characterized the first isolate of NDV, which could act as domestic reference strain and could help in development and selection of appropriate strain of NDV for vaccine in the country.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Munir
- Division of Virology, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SLU, Ulls väg 2B, 751 89 Uppsala, Sweden.
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Munir M, Zohari S, Abbas M, Berg M. Sequencing and analysis of the complete genome of Newcastle disease virus isolated from a commercial poultry farm in 2010. Arch Virol 2012; 157:765-8. [DOI: 10.1007/s00705-011-1220-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2011] [Accepted: 12/01/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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Ruenphet S, Jahangir A, Shoham D, Takehara K. Situation of serum antibodies against Newcastle disease virus in slaughter-age ostriches after vaccination campaign in Japan. J Vet Med Sci 2011; 74:477-80. [PMID: 22075709 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.11-0427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
A total of 516 slaughter-age ostrich sera were collected in Japan during 2006-2009. Sixty-one of five hundred and sixteen were positive by virus neutralization (VN) test and the titer of most positive samples was low level. Within the 61 positive sera, 35 sera were collected from unvaccinated ostriches. This result implies that these ostriches might have been infected naturally with low-virulent Newcastle disease virus (NDV). Within the 455 negative samples, 125 samples were from vaccinated ostriches. Since ostrich farmers use live attenuated vaccines, it is reasonable that the titer decreased to below detection level by 1 or 1.5 year-old. The above data indicate that NDV has infiltrated into ostrich farms in Japan, and that the efficacy of ostrich ND vaccination is often time-limited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sakchai Ruenphet
- Laboratory of Animal Health, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu, Tokyo 183-8509, Japan
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Zhang S, Zhao L, Wang X, Zhang D, Zhao J, Zhang G. Serologic and virologic survey for evidence of infection with velogenic Newcastle disease virus in Chinese duck farms. Avian Dis 2011; 55:476-9. [PMID: 22017050 DOI: 10.1637/9649-010611-resnote.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
A serologic and virologic survey was performed to determine the prevalence and distribution of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) infection in Chinese duck flocks. NDV infection was detected in nine of the 12 sampled farms throughout the two geographic regions covered by the survey. The percentage antibody positivity among the 406 serum samples was 35.7%. Three velogenic NDVs were obtained from different duck flocks identified by hemagglutination and hemagglutination-inhibition tests, a pathogenicity test, and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction on the fusion (F) genes. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that all three isolates clustered with the class II viruses; two were phylogenetically close to genotype VII NDVs, and the other was more closely related to genotype IX NDVs. These findings suggest that NDV infections were prevalent, and at least two distinct virulent genotypes may be responsible for recent epidemics in Chinese duck flocks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shouping Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, People's Republic of China
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Zhang S, Wang X, Zhao C, Liu D, Hu Y, Zhao J, Zhang G. Phylogenetic and pathotypical analysis of two virulent Newcastle disease viruses isolated from domestic ducks in China. PLoS One 2011; 6:e25000. [PMID: 21949828 PMCID: PMC3176290 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0025000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2011] [Accepted: 08/22/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Two velogenic Newcastle disease viruses (NDV) obtained from outbreaks in domestic ducks in China were characterized in this study. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that both strains clustered with the class II viruses, with one phylogenetically close to the genotype VII NDVs and the other closer to genotype IX. The deduced amino acid sequence of the cleavage site of the fusion (F) protein confirmed that both isolates contained the virulent motif (112)RRQK/RRF(117) at the cleavage site. The two NDVs had severe pathogenicity in fully susceptible chickens, resulting in 100% mortality. One of the isolates also demonstrated some pathogenicity in domestic ducks. The present study suggests that more than one genotype of NDV circulates in domestic ducks in China and viral transmission may occur among chickens and domestic ducks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shouping Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Ministry of Agriculture, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoting Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Ministry of Agriculture, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Changguang Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Ministry of Agriculture, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Dehua Liu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Ministry of Agriculture, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanxin Hu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Ministry of Agriculture, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Jixun Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Ministry of Agriculture, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Guozhong Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis, College of Veterinary Medicine, Ministry of Agriculture, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- * E-mail:
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Ruenphet S, Jahangir A, Shoham D, Morikawa K, Miyoshi Y, Hanawa E, Okamura M, Nakamura M, Takehara K. Surveillance and characterization of Newcastle disease viruses isolated from northern pintail (Anas acuta) in Japan during 2006-09. Avian Dis 2011; 55:230-5. [PMID: 21793438 DOI: 10.1637/9589-102510-reg.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
A total of 38 Newcastle disease virus (NDV) isolates were obtained from 6060 fecal samples from northern pintail (Anas acuta) ducks collected in the Tohoku district in Japan during 2006-09. One isolate from each sampling location and date was selected for a total of 38 isolates, then 15 of these were characterized for their pathogenicity by mean death time of minimum lethal dose (MDT/MLD) using chicken embryos and by plaque formation on chicken embryo fibroblasts. Furthermore, nine isolates were randomly selected from these 15 isolates, and the fusion protein genes were sequenced to characterize amino acid sequences around the cleavage site. All 15 were confirmed to be nonvirulent by MDT/MLD test, and nine isolates were also confirmed as nonvirulent by the cleavage site of the fusion protein 112G/E-K/R-Q-G/E-R*L117 that was specific for nonvirulent NDVs. The characteristics of nine isolates identified by phylogenic analysis of the fusion protein gene indicated that the isolates belong to genotype I or II. In addition, we also isolated 68 avian influenza viruses and 28 other hemagglutinating viruses. Our data indicate that northern pintails are subclinically infected by, perpetuate, and distribute NDV along with different subtypes of avian influenza viruses and other hemagglutinating viruses during their migrations across vast areas over the Northern Hemisphere to Japan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sakchai Ruenphet
- Laboratory of Zoonoses, School of Veterinary Medicine, Kitasato University, Toada, Aomori, Japan
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Mase M, Murayama K, Karino A, Inoue T. Analysis of the fusion protein gene of Newcastle disease viruses isolated in Japan. J Vet Med Sci 2010; 73:47-54. [PMID: 20736513 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.10-0281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The complete nucleotide sequences of the fusion (F) protein gene of Newcastle disease viruses (NDV) isolated in Japan from 1930 to 2007 (45 strains total) were determined and genetically analyzed. In the deduced amino acid sequences of fusion protein, the 5 potential asparagine-linked glycosylation sites and 10 cysteine residues were all conserved in the NDV examined in this study. The major epitopes involved in virus neutralization are conserved in most of the NDV strains isolated in Japan except a few strains. By virus neutralization test, no major antigenic differences were observed among representative strains of each genotype in Japan. All chickens vaccinated with the B1 strain survived without clinical signs after challenge with 2 NDV strains isolated in Japan (velogenic strains, JP/Ibaraki/2000 and JP/Kagoshima/91), which possess amino acids substitutions involved in virus neutralization in the F protein gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaji Mase
- National Institute of Animal Health, Ibaraki, Japan.
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Fujimoto Y, Ito H, Shivakoti S, Nakamori J, Tsunekuni R, Otsuki K, Ito T. Avian influenza virus and paramyxovirus isolation from migratory waterfowl and shorebirds in San-in district of western Japan from 2001 to 2008. J Vet Med Sci 2010; 72:963-7. [PMID: 20215717 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.10-0012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Surveillance of avian influenza virus and paramyxovirus in migratory waterfowl and shorebirds was conducted in the San-in district of western Japan from the winter of 2001 to 2008. From 4,335 fecal samples from wild birds, 41 avian influenza viruses of 12 different HA and NA combinations, including two H5N3 strains, and 13 avian paramyxoviruses were isolated. Phylogenetic analysis of HA genes revealed that H5N3 strains clustered in a different branch from the recent highly pathogenic H5N1 isolates in Japan; however, the introduction of new highly pathogenic avian influenza virus by migratory birds cannot be ignored. Therefore, it is necessary to continue surveillance of these potentially serious pathogens in waterfowl and shorebirds.
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Newcastle disease: evolution of genotypes and the related diagnostic challenges. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2009; 10:26-35. [PMID: 19800028 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2009.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 284] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2009] [Revised: 09/22/2009] [Accepted: 09/22/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Since the discovery of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) in 1926, nine genotypes of class I viruses and ten of class II have been identified, representing a diverse and continually evolving group of viruses. The emergence of new virulent genotypes from global epizootics and the year-to-year changes observed in the genomic sequence of NDV of low and high virulence implies that distinct genotypes of NDV are simultaneously evolving at different geographic locations across the globe. This vast genomic diversity may be favored by the large variety of avian species susceptible to NDV infection and by the availability of highly mobile wild bird reservoirs. The genomic diversity of NDV increases the possibility of diagnostic failures, resulting in unidentified infections. Constant epidemiological surveillance and pro-active characterization of circulating strains are needed to ensure that the immunological and PCR reagents are effective in identifying NDV circulating worldwide. For example, in the United States, the widely used real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RRT-PCR) matrix gene assay for the identification of NDV often fails to detect low virulence APMV-1 from waterfowl, while the RRT-PCR fusion gene assay, used to identify virulent isolates, often fails to detect certain virulent NDV genotypes. A new matrix-polymerase multiplex test that detects most of the viruses currently circulating worldwide and a modified fusion test for the identification of virulent pigeon viruses circulating in the U.S. and Europe have recently been developed. For newly isolated viruses with unknown sequences, recently developed random priming sequencing methods need to be incorporated into the diagnostic arsenal. In addition, the current system of classifying NDV into genotypes or lineages is inadequate. Here, we review the molecular epidemiology and recent diagnostic problems related to viral evolution of NDV and explain why a new system, based on objective criteria, is needed to categorize genotypes.
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