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Shiloh S, Peleg S, Nudelman G. Associations between vaccination and protective behaviors against COVID-19: transfer and redundancy effects as potential psychological mechanisms. PSYCHOL HEALTH MED 2024; 29:1296-1312. [PMID: 38240264 DOI: 10.1080/13548506.2024.2302331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 07/06/2024]
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate mechanisms explaining associations between vaccination and protective health behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study used a secondary analysis of data from a longitudinal online study at four time points between April 2020 and March 2021. Two hundred and forty participants responded to questionnaires assessing adherence to multiple COVID-19 protection behaviors, COVID-19 vaccination, behavioral specific outcome expectancies and general healthy lifestyle. Statistical analyses included z statistic for differences between correlations and moderation analysis by the SPSS PROCESS macro. The correlation between initial adherence to protective behaviors prior to availability of vaccination and actual vaccination was positive, but when vaccination was available, the concurrent correlation between these behaviors was null. Healthy lifestyle and outcome expectancies moderated the association between vaccination and adherence to protection behaviors. These results were explained by a 'redundancy effect', conceptualized as beliefs that engagement in specific health behaviors justifies evading other health behaviors. The 'redundancy effect' cancelled the initial positive correlation between vaccination and protective health behaviors, produced by a 'transfer effect', based on similarities between the perceived purposes of those behaviors. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings were discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shoshana Shiloh
- School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | | | - Gabriel Nudelman
- School of Behavioral Sciences, The Academic College of Tel Aviv-Yafo, Tel Aviv, Israel
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Yin B, Shen Y. Development and Validation of the Compensatory Belief Scale for the Internet Instant Gratification Behavior. Heliyon 2024; 10:e23972. [PMID: 38268608 PMCID: PMC10805770 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e23972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2023] [Revised: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/01/2024] [Indexed: 01/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Objective The concept of "compensatory belief" pertains to an individual's conviction that the negative consequences of a specific behavior can be counteracted by engaging in a subsequent positive behavior. This study sought to devise a scale tailored to gauge compensatory beliefs concerning internet instant gratification behaviors. Methods Utilizing the Credamo online questionnaire platform, data were amassed from two distinctive cohorts: organizational employees and college students. A collective 1064 responses were amassed. Results The newly created Compensatory Belief Scale for Internet Instant Gratification Behavior was bifurcated into two versions: one tailored for employees (CBS-IIGB-E) and the other for college students (CBS-IIGB-S). Through an exploratory factor analysis, two factors were discerned, namely "Compensatory Beliefs for Working/Studying " and "Compensatory Beliefs for Resting". A confirmatory factor analysis validated this two-factor model with the following metrics for the employee version: SBχ2 = 54.88, df = 32, CFI = 0.974, TLI = 0.964, RMSEA = 0.064, SRMR = 0.047, and for the student version: SBχ2 = 19.26,df = 19,CFI = 0.999,TLI = 0.999,RMSEA = 0.008,SRMR = 0.033. The scores on the Internet Addiction Scale and the Smartphone Addiction Scale showed a positive correlation with the overall scores of the CBS-IIGB-E and the scores of its two factors. Conversely, the scores on the Self-control Scale exhibited a negative correlation with the total scores of the CBS-IIGB-E and the scores of its two factors. The correlation pattern with the criterion scales for the CBS-IIGB-S mirrored that of the CBS-IIGB-E, with the exception that the Self-control Scale only correlated with the two factors and not the overall score of the CBS-IIGB-S. The McDonald's Omega coefficients for the two factors of the CBS-IIGB-E were 0.84 and 0.86 respectively, and those for the CBS-IIGB-S were 0.82 and 0.87 respectively. Both scales demonstrated a test-retest reliability of 0.76. Significant differences in the scale scores across diverse target groups were observed in the simulation game of internet instant gratification behavior, thereby validating the predictive validity of the developed scales. Conclusion The Compensatory Belief Scale for Internet Instant Gratification Behavior (CBS-IIGB) is a reliable and valid tool for measuring compensatory belief in situations where the allure of immediate internet gratification comes into conflict with long-term objectives, among both organizational employees (CBS-IIGB-E) and college students (CBS-IIGB-S).
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Yin
- Laboratory for Learning and Behavioral Sciences, School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, 350117, Fujian, China
- Department of Applied Psychology, School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, 350117, Fujian, China
| | - Yong Shen
- Laboratory for Learning and Behavioral Sciences, School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, 350117, Fujian, China
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Penker M, Seebauer S. "I should" Does Not Mean "I can." Introducing Efficacy, Normative, and General Compensatory Green Beliefs. JOURNAL OF CONSUMER POLICY 2023; 46:223-251. [PMID: 37274087 PMCID: PMC10158688 DOI: 10.1007/s10603-023-09539-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Compensatory green beliefs (CGBs) denote beliefs that unsustainable behaviours can be compensated for by performing other sustainable behaviours. We propose to differentiate between efficacy, normative, and general beliefs (ECGBs, NCGBs, GCGBs). ECGBs refer to effectively offsetting previous lapses. NCGBs denote feeling morally obliged to make amends. GCGBs refer to trading off unspecified efforts in overall consumption. Employing survey data from n = 502 high school graduates and an n = 145 longitudinal subsample, we find a three-factor structure of CGBs. ECGBs, NCGBs, and GCGBs intercorrelate moderately, indicating their status as different constructs. NCGBs are positively associated with pro-environmental values, self-identity, and social norms, whereas GCGBs are negatively associated with these constructs. CGBs, in particular NCGBs, have unique explanatory power for sustainable behaviours. NCGBs show substantial temporal stability over one year. CGBs need not be destructive, as NCGBs may encourage sustainable action. Persuasive messages could be tailored to specific CGBs in specific behavioural domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Penker
- Center for Social Research, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - S. Seebauer
- Life Institute for Climate, Energy Systems and Society, JOANNEUM RESEARCH Forschungsgesellschaft Mbh, Waagner-Biro-Straße 100/9, 8010 Graz, Austria
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The Effect of Exposure to “Exemption” Video Advertisements for Functional Foods: A Randomized Control Study in Japan. Healthcare (Basel) 2022; 10:healthcare10020345. [PMID: 35206959 PMCID: PMC8872309 DOI: 10.3390/healthcare10020345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Revised: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous content analysis of video advertisements for functional foods identified “Exemption” advertisements. “Exemption” advertisements may imply to the audiences that “By taking functional foods, I can adopt unhealthy behaviors or I don’t have to adopt healthy behaviors”. In the context of Compensatory Health Beliefs (CHBs), this study refers to these beliefs as functional foods related to CHBs (FF-CHBs). This study aimed to assess the effects of exposure to “Exemption” advertisements for fat-reduction functional foods on audiences. The main hypothesis is exposure to “Exemption” video advertisements increases participants’ FF-CHBs. Participants (n = 788) were randomly assigned to an intervention group that viewed three video advertisements or a control group and answered online self-administered questionnaires. Intervention videos were three videos with the highest number of views per month from among the “Exemption” video advertisements. Control videos were about how to brew green tea. FF-CHBs was assessed before and after the intervention. The intervention group showed significantly greater FF-CHBs after intervention (mean = 2.37 vs. 2.11, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.026) compared with the control group. “Exemption” functional foods video advertisements increased FF-CHBs that can lead to adopting unhealthy behaviors and avoiding healthy behaviors. The content of these functional foods video advertisements should be improved to promote public health.
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Au-Yeung CS, Chao RF, Hsu LY. Why It Is Difficult for Military Personnel to Quit Smoking: From the Perspective of Compensatory Health Beliefs. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph182212261. [PMID: 34832015 PMCID: PMC8618123 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182212261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Revised: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Compensatory health beliefs are barriers to healthy behavior. In an effort to understand how the prevalence of these beliefs can be reduced in individuals, 376 valid questionnaires were collected from combat troops in Taiwan. The collected data were analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modelling. It was found that positive attitudes towards smoking cessation had significant negative effects on compensatory health beliefs, while negative attitudes towards smoking cessation significantly enhanced the level of compensatory health beliefs. The motivation for smoking cessation was also found to reinforce the negative effect of positive attitudes towards compensatory health beliefs, while it did not have any significant effect on the relationship between negative attitudes and compensatory health beliefs. Three subconstructs of compensatory health beliefs (exercise, eating habits, and amount of smoking) were found to have simultaneous effects for military personnel. Finally, this study explored the causes of the above-mentioned phenomena, and measures that could reduce the prevalence of compensatory health beliefs were suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chor-Sum Au-Yeung
- Postgraduate Programs in Management, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung 84001, Taiwan; (C.-S.A.-Y.); (L.-Y.H.)
| | - Ren-Fang Chao
- Department of Leisure Management, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung 84001, Taiwan
- Correspondence:
| | - Li-Yun Hsu
- Postgraduate Programs in Management, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung 84001, Taiwan; (C.-S.A.-Y.); (L.-Y.H.)
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6
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Zhao K, Xu X, Zhu H, Xu Q. Compensatory Belief in Health Behavior Management: A Concept Analysis. Front Psychol 2021; 12:705991. [PMID: 34512462 PMCID: PMC8429599 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.705991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose This study aimed to identify the exact definition of the concept of compensatory belief (CB) and to help clinicians and caregivers to distinguish patients who tend to form such beliefs. Methods This study is a conceptual analysis based on the strategy of Walker and Avant (2014). We retrieved studies from existing literature using databases such as PubMed, CINAHL, Wiley, and Web of Science, and extracted information from the results. No date limitations were applied. Results A total of 35 articles were sourced for data extraction. The identified attributes of CB were as follows: cognitive coping strategy, pleasure without guilt, compensatory behaviors, automatic motivated self-regulatory process, and implicit cognition. The observed antecedents were: failure to resist desire, reluctance, a conflicting motivational state, seeking appropriate balance, and self-image maintenance. The consequences of CB were lower health-related intentions, justification of unhealthy choices, relief from cognitive dissonance, continued existence of conflict feeling, and poor long-term health. Conclusion Compensatory belief stems from motivational dissonance or confliction. Despite causing feelings of pleasure and relief, it can negatively impact long-term health. Although CB is crucial to establish healthy behaviors, it is easily ignored in medical work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kang Zhao
- School of Nursing, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xinyi Xu
- Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Hanfei Zhu
- School of Nursing, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Qin Xu
- School of Nursing, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
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Sob C, Siegrist M, Hagmann D, Hartmann C. A longitudinal study examining the influence of diet-related compensatory behavior on healthy weight management. Appetite 2020; 156:104975. [PMID: 32966848 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2020.104975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Revised: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 09/13/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to examine the role of diet-related compensatory behavior in healthy weight management regarding diet quality, physical activity, and body mass index (BMI) over time in a non-clinical general population. Data were based on the first and third waves of the Swiss Food Panel 2.0 survey, which included questions about food consumption frequencies and constructs measuring weight management strategies. Data were examined using principal component analysis and correlation analyses to examine the psychometric properties of the adapted items, and multiple linear regression analyses for longitudinal examination. The adapted items measuring diet-related compensatory behavior were shown to be valid and reliable. On a longitudinal level, the results show that diet-related compensatory behavior was a significant predictor for change in physical activity and diet quality. With a higher tendency for diet-related compensatory behavior, physical activity and diet quality increased after two years. No effect was found for changes in BMI over time. Individuals from a non-clinical population showing diet-related compensatory behavior more frequently seem to have an improved diet quality and an increase in physical activity over time. Therefore, when applied in healthy doses, diet-related compensatory behavior may contribute to the maintenance of a balanced and healthy body weight, but it is not a successful strategy for weight loss over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia Sob
- ETH Zurich, Institute for Environmental Decisions (IED), Consumer Behavior, Universitätstrasse 22, CH-8092, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Michael Siegrist
- ETH Zurich, Institute for Environmental Decisions (IED), Consumer Behavior, Universitätstrasse 22, CH-8092, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Désirée Hagmann
- ZHAW Zürcher Hochschule für Angewandte Wissenschaften, Departement Angewandte Psychologie, Psychologisches Institut, Pfingstweidstrasse 96, CH-8037, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christina Hartmann
- ETH Zurich, Institute for Environmental Decisions (IED), Consumer Behavior, Universitätstrasse 22, CH-8092, Zurich, Switzerland
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Do Daily Compensatory Health Beliefs Predict Intention to Quit and Smoking Behavior? A Daily Diary Study during Smoking Cessation. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17176419. [PMID: 32899272 PMCID: PMC7504513 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17176419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Compensatory health beliefs (CHBs) are a means to cope with motivational conflicts between intended health goals and the temptation for an unhealthy behavior. As CHBs can fluctuate on a daily basis, this study examined how daily CHBs are associated with daily intention to quit smoking and daily number of cigarettes smoked before and after a quit date at the between- and within-person level. The study comprised a prospective longitudinal design and investigated 83 women and 83 men for 32 consecutive days during an ongoing joint self-set quit attempt. Daily CHBs varied from day to day and between individuals. At the between-person level, higher women’s mean CHBs were associated with lower intention (b = −0.23, p = 0.04) and at the 10% level with more cigarettes smoked after the quit date (rate ratio (RR) = 1.92, p = 0.07). At the within-person level, women’s higher than usual CHBs were unrelated to intention to quit, but were related to less smoking before (RR = 0.96, p = 0.03) and at the 10% level after the quit date (RR = 0.91, p = 0.09). A marginally positive association between daily CHBs and smoking at the within-person level emerged for men. The negative effect of daily CHBs at the between-person level on smoking seems to unfold after the quit attempt and for women only.
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'They deserve a treat': the nature and antecedents of parental licensing surrounding children's physical activity. Public Health Nutr 2020; 24:2098-2108. [PMID: 32854799 DOI: 10.1017/s1368980020002554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Little is known about parents' compensatory health beliefs (CHB) surrounding their children's engagement in physical activity (PA). Our aim was to provide evidence regarding the nature of, and factors underpinning, parents' PA-related compensatory beliefs for their children. DESIGN A qualitative descriptive approach and thematic content analysis were employed. SETTING Parents were recruited from community sport and PA programmes. PARTICIPANTS Eighteen parents aged 32-52 years (mean age = 40·8 (sd 5·4) years; six males; twelve females). RESULTS Analyses indicated that parents compensate through 'passive' or 'active' means. Among parents who compensated, most described their provision of 'treat' foods/drinks and a minority described allowing extended sedentary time to their children. Parents' reasons underpinning these beliefs related to their child's general physical/health status and psychological characteristics, and their own motivation and mood state. CONCLUSIONS These findings provide the first evidence of unhealthy dietary and sedentary behaviour CHB that parents may hold regarding their children's involvement in PA.
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10
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Sen Choudhury R, Conway KS. The effect of tobacco policies on youth physical activity. ECONOMICS AND HUMAN BIOLOGY 2020; 38:100872. [PMID: 32563098 DOI: 10.1016/j.ehb.2020.100872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2019] [Revised: 02/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Our research examines the effects of tobacco policies on teenagers' physical activity. Smoking and physical activity are both strategies for weight management, and exercise may be a way to reduce some of the ill effects of smoking. These different links suggest that cigarette taxes could either increase or decrease physical activity. We explore this relationship using repeated cross-sectional 1991-2017 data from the national and state Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS), combined with state-level policies and controls. Our smoking participation results confirm past work; cigarette taxes have a negative effect on smoking that has waned in recent years. The estimated effects of cigarette taxes on physical activity echo those of smoking; cigarette taxes decrease physical activity and, like smoking, these effects have waned recently. However, one likely avenue - sports participation - is unaffected. These results suggest that increased cigarette taxes lead to modest declines in teen physical activity, a finding consistent with youth using exercise to compensate for the health effects of smoking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Sen Choudhury
- Department of Economics, University of New Hampshire, Paul College of Business and Economics, Durham, NH 03824, USA.
| | - Karen Smith Conway
- Department of Economics, University of New Hampshire, Paul College of Business and Economics, Durham, NH 03824, USA.
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11
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Kim B, Kim K, Burr JA, Han G. Health Behavior Profiles of Korean Baby Boomers. Int J Aging Hum Dev 2020; 90:363-384. [DOI: 10.1177/0091415018811095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
This study identified profiles of health behaviors among Korean baby boomers and examined a set of individual characteristics associated with these latent profiles. We analyzed a sample of 4,047 middle-aged adults (aged 53–61) from the Korean Baby Boomer Panel Study (2014). Latent profile analysis was used to uncover distinct health behavior profiles, and multinomial regression was performed to investigate the associations between health behavior profiles and predisposing, enabling, and need factors—following from the behavioral models of health behaviors and health services use. Five profiles of health behaviors were identified: (a) low-risk and high-preventive behaviors (50%), (b) low-risk and low-preventive behaviors (35%), (c) moderate-risk and moderate-preventive behaviors (7%), (d) moderate-risk and high-preventive behaviors (6%), and (e) high-risk and low-preventive behaviors (2%). Further, individuals with more enabling and need characteristics, indicated by higher socioeconomic status and greater health concerns, were more likely to engage in healthier profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bon Kim
- Department of Gerontology, John W. McCormack Graduate School of Policy and Global Studies, University of Massachusetts Boston, MA, USA
| | - Kyungmin Kim
- Department of Gerontology, John W. McCormack Graduate School of Policy and Global Studies, University of Massachusetts Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jeffrey A. Burr
- Department of Gerontology, John W. McCormack Graduate School of Policy and Global Studies, University of Massachusetts Boston, MA, USA
| | - Gyounghae Han
- Department of Child Development and Family Studies, Seoul National University, South Korea
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Capstick S, Whitmarsh L, Nash N, Haggar P, Lord J. Compensatory and Catalyzing Beliefs: Their Relationship to Pro-environmental Behavior and Behavioral Spillover in Seven Countries. Front Psychol 2019; 10:963. [PMID: 31164844 PMCID: PMC6536624 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
There is growing research interest in behavioral spillover and its potential for enabling more widespread lifestyle change than has typically been achieved through discrete behavioral interventions. There are some routes by which spillover could take place without conscious attention or explicit recognition of the connections between separate behaviors. However, in many cases there is an expectation that an individual will perceive behaviors to be conceptually related, specifically in terms of their compensatory (suppressing further action) or catalyzing (promoting further action) properties, as a prerequisite for both negative and positive spillover. Despite this, relatively little research has been carried out to assess the beliefs that may underpin spillover processes as held by individuals themselves, or to measure these directly. We develop and evaluate a survey-based instrument for this purpose, doing so in a sample of seven countries worldwide: Brazil, China, Denmark, India, Poland, South Africa, and the United Kingdom (approx. 1,000 respondents per country). This approach allows us to assess these measures and to compare findings between countries. As part of this, we consider the connections between beliefs about behavioral relationships, and other key variables such as pro-environmental identity and personal preferences. We observe higher levels of endorsement of compensatory beliefs than previous research, and even higher levels of endorsement of novel items assessing catalyzing beliefs. For the first time, we present evidence of the validity of such measures with respect to comparable constructs, and in relation to people's consistency across different types of behaviors. We reflect on the implications of considering the relationships between behaviors in the context of people's subjective beliefs and offer recommendations for developing this line of research in the broader context of spillover research and within a cross-cultural framework.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart Capstick
- School of Psychology and Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
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13
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West JS, Guelfi KJ, Dimmock JA, Jackson B. Preliminary Validation of the Exercise-Snacking Licensing Scale: Rewarding Exercise with Unhealthy Snack Foods and Drinks. Nutrients 2018; 10:nu10121866. [PMID: 30513806 PMCID: PMC6316787 DOI: 10.3390/nu10121866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2018] [Revised: 11/12/2018] [Accepted: 11/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
There is evidence that individuals’ compensatory health beliefs may be an important psychological driver of health behavior. Only recently, however, have researchers begun to develop and seek to validate instruments that are suited to measuring specific pairings of the diverse compensatory health beliefs that exist. The aim of this study was to provide support for key aspects of validity associated with the Exercise-Snacking Licensing Scale (ESLS), an instrument that was designed to assess individuals’ endorsement (or licensing) of unhealthy snacking behaviors around exercise. Participants (N = 1095) responded to a version of the ESLS that was designed to assess their licensing responses following either “light” or “tiring” physical activity, and completed additional instruments assessing dispositional, exercise-related, and diet-related constructs. Analyses indicated that scores derived from both versions of the ESLS (“light” and “tiring” physical activity) displayed a relatively consistent factor structure, favorable alpha coefficients, and meaningful correlations with variables that are theoretically aligned with licensing. Factor analytic procedures did, however, indicate that researchers may wish, in future, to consider the use (or not) of reverse-scored items within the ESLS. Together, these findings provide important insight into the structural, external, and generalizability aspects of validity for scores derived from the ESLS, and indicate that the ESLS may be a valuable instrument for the brief assessment of unhealthy licensing beliefs around exercise. Further use of the ESLS is encouraged to determine if and how these licensing beliefs actually influence subsequent snacking behaviors, and the potential downstream effects these beliefs may have in shaping health outcomes associated with exercise participation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica S West
- School of Human Sciences (Exercise and Sport Science), The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Perth, WA 6009, Australia.
| | - Kym J Guelfi
- School of Human Sciences (Exercise and Sport Science), The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Perth, WA 6009, Australia.
| | - James A Dimmock
- School of Human Sciences (Exercise and Sport Science), The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Perth, WA 6009, Australia.
| | - Ben Jackson
- School of Human Sciences (Exercise and Sport Science), The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Perth, WA 6009, Australia.
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Schreuders M, Krooneman NT, van den Putte B, Kunst AE. Boy Smokers' Rationalisations for Engaging in Potentially Fatal Behaviour: In-Depth Interviews in The Netherlands. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2018; 15:ijerph15040767. [PMID: 29659521 PMCID: PMC5923809 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15040767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Revised: 04/03/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Adolescent smokers engage in cognitive rationalisation processes that lower perceptions of personal vulnerability to the health consequences of smoking. There is, however, hardly any evidence that provides in-depth insights on adolescents’ recurring rationalisations. Therefore, we explored how boy smokers deal with the knowledge that they are engaging in potentially fatal behaviour. Interviews were held with 16 boy smokers aged 16 to 17 years old. The qualitative analysis focussed on combining boys’ reasons about why they think they will not experience severe health consequences into coherent rationalisations that recurred among interviewees. Three rationalisations emerged from the analysis. First, boys trivialize the immediate consequences and think these can be compensated for and are outweighed by the benefits of smoking. Second, boys assume that smoking will only take place during adolescence and they will, therefore, recover from the damage inflicted. Third, boys believe that they have control over the amount and frequency of smoking and, thereby, can ensure that they will not experience fatal consequences. Boys’ recurring rationalisations build on their view that they are supposed to have fun and will not become typical adult smokers. Interventions should address these rationalisations in order to increase adolescents’ perceptions of personal vulnerability, and thereby contribute to decreasing adolescent smoking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Schreuders
- Department of Public Health, Academic Medical Centre, 1100DD Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Nikha T Krooneman
- Department of Public Health, Academic Medical Centre, 1100DD Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Bas van den Putte
- Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, University of Amsterdam, 1018WV Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- Trimbos Institute, Netherlands Institute for Mental Health and Addiction, 3521VS Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Anton E Kunst
- Department of Public Health, Academic Medical Centre, 1100DD Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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15
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Matley FAI, Davies EL. Resisting temptation: alcohol specific self-efficacy mediates the impacts of compensatory health beliefs and behaviours on alcohol consumption. PSYCHOL HEALTH MED 2017; 23:259-269. [DOI: 10.1080/13548506.2017.1363395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Fiona A. I. Matley
- Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Department of Psychology, Social Work and Public Health, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK
| | - Emma L. Davies
- Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Department of Psychology, Social Work and Public Health, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK
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Conway KS, Niles DP. Cigarette Taxes, Smoking-and Exercise? HEALTH ECONOMICS 2017; 26:1019-1036. [PMID: 27402323 DOI: 10.1002/hec.3381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2015] [Revised: 02/29/2016] [Accepted: 06/03/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
This research provides the first in-depth analysis of the effect that increased cigarette taxes have on exercise behavior. Smoking may diminish the ability to exercise; individuals may also use exercise to compensate for the harmful health effects of smoking or to avoid gaining weight if they cut back. Our conceptual model highlights these and several other avenues for effect and reveals that the predicted effect of cigarette costs on exercise behavior is theoretically ambiguous. To investigate the relationship empirically, 1994-2012 data from the behavioral risk factor surveillance system are combined with state level cigarette tax rates and other state level variables. Several measures of both smoking and exercise behavior are created and estimated in reduced form models. Our results suggest that both smoking and exercise are reduced by cigarette taxes. However, the effects on exercise may be more complicated as we find that certain groups, such as young adults or those who have recently quit smoking, are affected differently. Our analyses also show that the responsiveness of both smoking and exercise behavior to cigarette costs is much smaller in the 2000s, an era of high-tax increases. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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17
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Kim ES, Dedrick RF, Cao C, Ferron JM. Multilevel Factor Analysis: Reporting Guidelines and a Review of Reporting Practices. MULTIVARIATE BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH 2016; 51:881-898. [PMID: 27754708 DOI: 10.1080/00273171.2016.1228042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
We provide reporting guidelines for multilevel factor analysis (MFA) and use these guidelines to systematically review 72 MFA applications in journals across a range of disciplines (e.g., education, health/nursing, management, and psychology) published between 1994 and 2014. Results are organized in terms of the (a) characteristics of the MFA application (e.g., construct measured), (b) purpose (e.g., measurement validation), (c) data source (e.g., number of cases at Level 1 and Level 2), (d) statistical approach (e.g., maximum likelihood), and (e) results reported (e.g., intraclass correlations for indicators and latent variables, standardized factor loadings, fit indices). Results from this review have implications for applied researchers interested in expanding their approaches to psychometric analyses and construct validation within a multilevel framework and for methodologists using Monte Carlo methods to explore technical and methodological issues grounded in realistic research design conditions.
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Abstract
Abstract. Compensatory health beliefs (CHBs), defined as belief that an unhealthy behavior can be compensated by engaging in another healthy behavior, are negatively predictive of health-behavior change intentions and behavior. However, CHBs have to be distinguished from compensatory health behavior (CBs), which is defined as compensatory behavior that an individual engages in. As it has not been investigated to date, the aim of this study was to systematically examine the distinction between CHBs and CBs in the context of alcohol consumption. The baseline sample consisted of 898 participants (mainly students, mean age = 23.57 years). For running exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses on CHBs and CBs, the split-half sample method was used. Moreover, the relationships of CHBs and CBs with health-related variables were assessed by regression analyses. The cross-sectional analyses supported the distinction between CHBs and CBs. In contrast to the CHBs, CBs were positively predictive of the intention to drink less alcohol and alcohol consumption. The consideration of CBs when investigating health behavior is highly relevant.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Urte Scholz
- Psychologisches Institut, Universität Zürich
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19
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Ogden J. Do no harm: Balancing the costs and benefits of patient outcomes in health psychology research and practice. J Health Psychol 2016; 24:25-37. [PMID: 27247091 DOI: 10.1177/1359105316648760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
This article analyses research exploring medication adherence, help-seeking behaviour, screening and behaviour change to argue that all interventions have the potential for both benefit and harm. Accordingly, health psychology may have inadvertently contributed to psychological harms (e.g. lead times, anxiety, risk compensation and rebound effects); medical harms (e.g. medication side effects, unnecessary procedures) and social harms (e.g. financial costs, increased consultations rates). Such harms may result from medicalisation or pharmaceuticalisation. Or, they may reflect the ways in which we manage probabilities and an optimistic bias that emphasises benefit over cost.
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20
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Radtke T, Rackow P. Autonomous motivation is not enough: the role of compensatory health beliefs for the readiness to change stair and elevator use. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2014; 11:12412-28. [PMID: 25464134 PMCID: PMC4276621 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph111212412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2014] [Revised: 11/24/2014] [Accepted: 11/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Compensatory health beliefs (CHBs) are beliefs that an unhealthy behavior can be compensated with a healthy behavior. In line with the CHBs model, the aim of this study was twofold. First, the study investigated the relationship between autonomous motivation and CHBs that physical inactivity can be compensated by taking the stairs instead of the elevator. Second, the study focused on the associations between CHBs and readiness to use the stairs more often and stair and elevator use. Thus, a cross-sectional online questionnaire was designed that was filled out by 135 participants. Path analysis showed that individuals with stronger autonomous motivation to use the stairs strongly agreed that sedentary behavior could be compensated by taking the stairs instead of the elevator. Moreover, CHBs were positively related to readiness to change behavior, but not to self-reported stair and elevator use. Even though future research is necessary to replicate these findings, autonomous motivation seems to have a positive impact on CHBs which, in turn, might boost an intended behavior change. Thus, promoting possible compensation of physical inactivity might foster the readiness to change the unhealthy behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theda Radtke
- Department of Psychology, Applied Social Psychology, University of Zurich, Binzmühlestr.14/Box 14, 8050 Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Pamela Rackow
- Department of Psychology, Applied Social Psychology, University of Zurich, Binzmühlestr.14/Box 14, 8050 Zurich, Switzerland.
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21
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Radtke T, Kaklamanou D, Scholz U, Hornung R, Armitage CJ. Are diet-specific compensatory health beliefs predictive of dieting intentions and behaviour? Appetite 2014; 76:36-43. [PMID: 24472827 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2014.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2013] [Revised: 12/29/2013] [Accepted: 01/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Compensatory Health Beliefs (CHBs) - beliefs that an unhealthy behaviour can be compensated for by healthy behaviour - are hypothesised to be activated automatically to help people resolve conflicts between their desires (e.g. eat chocolate) and their long-term goals (e.g. dieting). The aim of the present research was to investigate diet-specific CHBs within the context of a theoretical framework, the Health Action Process Approach (HAPA), to examine the extent to which diet-specific CHBs contribute to dieting intentions and dietary intake. Seventy-five dieting women were recruited in Switzerland and England and were asked to complete measures of diet-specific CHBs, risk perception, outcome expectancies, self-efficacy, intention, and behaviour. Path modelling showed that, overall, diet-specific CHBs were not related to dieting intentions (β=.10) or behaviour (β=.06) over and above variables specified in the HAPA. However, risk perception moderated the relationship between diet-specific CHBs and intention (β=.26). Diet-specific CHBs positively predicted intention in women with high risk perception, but not in women with low risk perception. This positive relationship might be explained by the assumption that CHBs play different roles at different stages of the health-behaviour change process. Future studies should further examine moderators and stage-specific differences of the associations between CHBs, intention and health-behaviour change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theda Radtke
- Department of Psychology, Developmental and Health Psychology, University of Konstanz, PO Box 14, 78457 Konstanz, Germany.
| | - Daphne Kaklamanou
- Department of Psychology, Sociology & Politics, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield S10 2BP, United Kingdom
| | - Urte Scholz
- Department of Psychology, Applied Social Psychology, University of Zurich, Binzmühlestrasse 14/14, 8050 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Rainer Hornung
- Department of Psychology, Social and Health Psychology, University of Zurich, Binzmühlestrasse 14/14, 8050 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christopher J Armitage
- Manchester Centre for Health Psychology, School of Psychological Sciences, University of Manchester, Coupland Street, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom
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22
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Abstract
Compensatory health beliefs (CHBs)–beliefs that an unhealthy behavior can be compensated for by a healthy behavior–can be distinguished into trait and state beliefs. Trait CHBs are stable individual differences, whereas state CHBs are activated in a tempting situation–for example, when faced with an attractive snack. The aim of this study was to test whether diet-specific trait or state CHBs are predictive for an unhealthy behavior–namely, high-calorie snack consumption. A scenario was created in which 66 women aged 16 to 50 were faced with a high-calorie snack. Diet-specific trait and state CHBs correlated moderately with each other. Regression analyses revealed that diet-specific trait CHBs with exercise as the compensatory behavior were significantly predictive for high-calorie snack consumption, over and above control variables such as age, whereas state CHBs were only marginally significant. Diet-specific trait and state CHBs with reduced intake (eat less later) as the compensatory behavior were not related to high-calorie snack consumption. Results showed that trait CHBs are relevant for the prediction of high-calorie snack consumption. Future studies might want to further refine the measurement of CHBs, especially state CHBs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theda Radtke
- Department of Psychology, Developmental and Health Psychology, University of Konstanz, Germany
| | - Jennifer Inauen
- Department of Psychology, Applied Social Psychology, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Laura Rennie
- B-Research/Université Paris-Ouest Nanterre La Défense, Paris, France
| | - Sheina Orbell
- Department of Psychology, University of Essex, Colchester, UK
| | - Urte Scholz
- Department of Psychology, Applied Social Psychology, University of Zurich, Switzerland
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23
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Berli C, Loretini P, Radtke T, Hornung R, Scholz U. Predicting physical activity in adolescents: The role of compensatory health beliefs within the Health Action Process Approach. Psychol Health 2013; 29:458-74. [DOI: 10.1080/08870446.2013.865028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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24
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Fitz CC, Kaufman A, Moore PJ. Lay theories of smoking and young adult nonsmokers' and smokers' smoking expectations. J Health Psychol 2013; 20:438-45. [PMID: 24155189 DOI: 10.1177/1359105313502694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the relationship between lay theories of cigarette smoking and expectations to smoke. An incremental lay theory of smoking entails the belief that smoking behavior can change; an entity theory entails the belief that smoking behavior cannot change. Undergraduate nonsmokers and smokers completed a survey that assessed lay theories of smoking and smoking expectations. Results demonstrated that lay theories of smoking were differentially associated with smoking expectations for nonsmokers and smokers: stronger incremental beliefs were associated with greater expectations of trying smoking for nonsmokers but lower expectations of becoming a regular smoker for smokers. Implications for interventions are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline C Fitz
- The George Washington University, USA Tobacco Control Research Branch, Behavioral Research Program, Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute, USA
| | - Annette Kaufman
- Tobacco Control Research Branch, Behavioral Research Program, Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute, USA
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25
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Radtke T, Scholz U, Keller R, Perren S, Hornung R. German-Language Version of the Compensatory Health Belief Scale. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.1026/0943-8149/a000100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
This study constitutes the first psychometric examination of the German-language version of the Compensatory Health Belief (CHB) scale to assess the belief that unhealthy behavior can be compensated for by engaging in healthy behavior. Data from four different Swiss samples of 1,571 adolescents/students (age range 15 – 55 years), collected between 2007 and 2009, were used. Confirmatory factor analysis did not support either the hypothesized 4-factor structure or a second-order factor structure with a latent overall variable for the German-language CHB scale. These results support the inconsistent patterns of CHBs found across European cultures. Thus, the development of behavior-specific scales might be of advantage. Further recommendations for an improvement of the measurement of compensatory health beliefs are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theda Radtke
- Department of Developmental and Health Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Urte Scholz
- Department of Developmental and Health Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Roger Keller
- Zurich University of Teacher Education, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sonja Perren
- University of Teacher Education Thurgau, Kreuzlingen, Switzerland
| | - Rainer Hornung
- Department of Social and Health Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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26
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Glock S, Müller BC, Krolak-Schwerdt S. Implicit associations and compensatory health beliefs in smokers: Exploring their role for behaviour and their change through warning labels. Br J Health Psychol 2013; 18:814-26. [DOI: 10.1111/bjhp.12023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2012] [Accepted: 12/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Glock
- University of Luxembourg; Walferdange Luxembourg
| | - Barbara C.N. Müller
- Behavioural Science Institute; Radboud University Nijmegen; HE Nijmegen The Netherlands
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27
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Radtke T, Scholz U, Keller R, Hornung R. Smoking is ok as long as I eat healthily: Compensatory Health Beliefs and their role for intentions and smoking within the Health Action Process Approach. Psychol Health 2012; 27 Suppl 2:91-107. [DOI: 10.1080/08870446.2011.603422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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28
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Kaklamanou D, Armitage CJ, Jones CR. A further look into compensatory health beliefs: A think aloud study. Br J Health Psychol 2012; 18:139-54. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2044-8287.2012.02097.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2012] [Revised: 07/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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29
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Ernsting A, Schwarzer R, Lippke S, Schneider M. ‘I do not need a flu shot because I lead a healthy lifestyle’: Compensatory health beliefs make vaccination less likely. J Health Psychol 2012; 18:825-36. [DOI: 10.1177/1359105312455076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Compensatory health beliefs, a self-defence strategy, were examined in a theory-guided intervention promoting influenza vaccination at the workplace. In total, 851 employees were randomised to one group aimed at enhancing intention formation (standard group) or to another one assisting self-regulation (intervention group). Assessments took place after the intervention and 5 months later, investigating whether the intervention would interfere with compensatory health beliefs. The intervention generated an indirect effect via planning on vaccination. Compensatory health beliefs mediated between intention and behaviour. An interaction between intervention group and compensatory health beliefs on behaviour transpired. At low compensatory health belief levels, the intervention group resulted in more vaccinations than the standard group.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ralf Schwarzer
- Freie Universität Berlin, Germany
- Warsaw School of Social Sciences and Humanities, Poland
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30
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Miquelon P, Knäuper B, Vallerand RJ. Motivation and goal attainment. The role of compensatory beliefs. Appetite 2012; 58:608-15. [PMID: 22245723 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2011.12.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2011] [Revised: 12/26/2011] [Accepted: 12/28/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
It was recently proposed that one cognitive strategy people might employ to find a balance between fulfilling their immediate desires and adhering to their long-term goals is to activate compensatory beliefs (CBs). CBs are convictions that the negative effects of a behavior can be compensated for by the positive effects of another behavior (e.g., "I can eat this piece of cake now because I will go to the gym tonight".). The purpose of the present research was to examine the motivational determinants and consequences of CBs in weight-loss dieting. It was proposed that autonomous motivation would lessen the activation of CBs. It was further proposed that activating CBs would decrease goal adherence, which, itself, would facilitate the attainment of one's dieting goals. Results of a prospective study using path analysis provided support for the model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paule Miquelon
- Département de Psychologie, Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, C.P. 500, Trois-Rivières, QC, Canada.
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