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Birk S, Miller JD, MacMullin A, Patterson RT, Villeneuve PJ. Perceptions of Freshwater Algal Blooms, Causes and Health among New Brunswick Lakefront Property Owners. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2023; 71:249-259. [PMID: 36318287 PMCID: PMC9628596 DOI: 10.1007/s00267-022-01736-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Changes to water conditions due to eutrophication and climate change have resulted in the proliferation of algae blooms in freshwater and marine environments globally, including in Canadian lakes. We developed and administered an online survey to evaluate the awareness of these blooms and the perceptions of health risks in a sample of New Brunswick waterfront cottage and homeowners. The survey was distributed to lake and cottage associations in New Brunswick and was completed by 186 eligible respondents (18 years of age or older). Participants were asked about the water quality of their lake, awareness about algae blooms, sociodemographic and cottage characteristics, and to complete a self-rated measure of physical and mental health. While approximately 73% of participants reported that the quality of their lake water was good or very good, 41% indicated a concern about algae blooms. We found no differences in self-reported physical or mental health between those who were aware of algae blooms at their cottage and those who were not (p > 0.05). Participants expressed concerns about the impacts of algae blooms on the health of their pets, and wildlife. While climate change was the most frequently identified cause of algae blooms, there was substantial heterogeneity in the responses. In addition, the reporting of the presence and frequency of algae bloom varied between respondents who lived on the same lake. Taken together, the findings from our survey suggest that cottage owners in New Brunswick are aware and concerned about the impacts of algae blooms, however, there is a need to provide additional information to them about the occurrence and causes of these blooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sapriya Birk
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - J David Miller
- Department of Chemistry, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Aidan MacMullin
- Sprott School of Business, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - R Timothy Patterson
- Ottawa Carleton Geoscience Centre and Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Paul J Villeneuve
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada.
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Tromas N, Fortin N, Bedrani L, Terrat Y, Cardoso P, Bird D, Greer CW, Shapiro BJ. Characterising and predicting cyanobacterial blooms in an 8-year amplicon sequencing time course. THE ISME JOURNAL 2017; 11:1746-1763. [PMID: 28524869 PMCID: PMC5520043 DOI: 10.1038/ismej.2017.58] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2016] [Revised: 02/10/2017] [Accepted: 03/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Cyanobacterial blooms occur in lakes worldwide, producing toxins that pose a serious public health threat. Eutrophication caused by human activities and warmer temperatures both contribute to blooms, but it is still difficult to predict precisely when and where blooms will occur. One reason that prediction is so difficult is that blooms can be caused by different species or genera of cyanobacteria, which may interact with other bacteria and respond to a variety of environmental cues. Here we used a deep 16S amplicon sequencing approach to profile the bacterial community in eutrophic Lake Champlain over time, to characterise the composition and repeatability of cyanobacterial blooms, and to determine the potential for blooms to be predicted based on time course sequence data. Our analysis, based on 135 samples between 2006 and 2013, spans multiple bloom events. We found that bloom events significantly alter the bacterial community without reducing overall diversity, suggesting that a distinct microbial community-including non-cyanobacteria-prospers during the bloom. We also observed that the community changes cyclically over the course of a year, with a repeatable pattern from year to year. This suggests that, in principle, bloom events are predictable. We used probabilistic assemblages of OTUs to characterise the bloom-associated community, and to classify samples into bloom or non-bloom categories, achieving up to 92% classification accuracy (86% after excluding cyanobacterial sequences). Finally, using symbolic regression, we were able to predict the start date of a bloom with 78-92% accuracy (depending on the data used for model training), and found that sequence data was a better predictor than environmental variables.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Tromas
- Département de Sciences Biologiques, Université de Montréal, 90 Vincent-d'Indy, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Nathalie Fortin
- National Research Council Canada, Energy, Mining and Environment, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Larbi Bedrani
- Microbiology and Ecology of Inflammatory Bowel Disease, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Yves Terrat
- Département de Sciences Biologiques, Université de Montréal, 90 Vincent-d'Indy, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Pedro Cardoso
- Finnish Museum of Natural History, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - David Bird
- Département des sciences biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal, Faculté des sciences, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Charles W Greer
- National Research Council Canada, Energy, Mining and Environment, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - B Jesse Shapiro
- Département de Sciences Biologiques, Université de Montréal, 90 Vincent-d'Indy, Montréal, QC, Canada
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Richard DS, Beattie KA, Codd GA. Toxicity of cyanobacterial blooms from Scottish freshwaters. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1080/09593338309384220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Nakamura N, Nakano K, Sugiura N, Matsumura M. A novel control process of cyanobacterial bloom using cyanobacteriolytic bacteria immobilized in floating biodegradable plastic carriers. ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY 2003; 24:1569-1576. [PMID: 14977153 DOI: 10.1080/09593330309385703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
A process using a floating carrier for immobilization of cyanobacteriolytic bacteria, B.cereus N-14, was proposed to realize an effective in situ control of natural floating cyanobacterial blooms. The critical concentrations of the cyanobacteriolytic substance and B.cereus N-14 cells required to exhibit cyanobacteriolytic activity were investigated. The results indicated the necessity of cell growth to produce sufficiently high amounts of the cyanobacteriolytic substance to exhibit its activity and also for conditions enabling good contact between high concentrations of the cyanobacteriolytic substance and cyanobacteria. Floating biodegradable plastics made of starch were applied as a carrier material to maintain close contact between the immobilized cyanobacteriolytic bacteria and floating cyanobacteria. The floating starch-carriers could eliminate 99% of floating cyanobacteria in 4 d. Since B.cereus N-14 could produce the cyanobacteriolytic substance under the presence of starch and some amino acids, the cyanobacteriolytic activity could be attributed to carbon source fed from starch carrier and amino acids eluted from lysed cyanobacteria. Therefore, the effect of using a floating starch-carrier was confirmed from both view points as a carrier for immobilization and a nutrient source to stimulate cyanobacteriolytic activity. The new concept to apply a floating carrier immobilizing useful microorganisms for intensive treatment of a nuisance floating target was demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Nakamura
- Institute of Applied Biochemistry, University of Tsukuba,1-l-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba City, 305-8572, Japan
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Nakamura N, Nakano K, Sugiura N, Matsumura M. A novel cyanobacteriolytic bacterium, Bacillus cereus, isolated from a Eutrophic Lake. J Biosci Bioeng 2003; 95:179-84. [PMID: 16233388 DOI: 10.1016/s1389-1723(03)80125-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2002] [Accepted: 10/17/2002] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Isolation and screening of cyanobacteriolytic bacteria were carried out. Fifteen strains of cyano-bacteriolytic bacteria were isolated by the double layer method using the cyanobacterium, Microcystis, as a sole nutrient. The isolate, N-14, showing the highest cyanobacteriolytic activity was identified as Bacillus cereus based on the 16S rRNA sequence. Components among the extracellular products in the culture supernatant of B. cereus were responsible for the cyanobacteriolytic activity. Lytic assay tests of culture supernatants indicated that the major substances for lytic activity could be non-proteinaceous, and hydrophilic, heat stable, and with a molecular weight of less than 2 kDa. The highest lytic activity was obtained under alkaline conditions, indicating an advantage for the practical application of water bloom control in eutrophic lakes where the pH is usually in the alkaline region. The lytic substance of B. cereus N-14 were compared with enterotoxins and an emetic toxin produced by a pathogenic strain of B. cereus, and also with a known algicide produced by Bacillus brevis, gramicidin. From these results, the lytic substance seemed to be a novel algicide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobuyuki Nakamura
- Institute of Applied Biochemistry, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba City 305-8572, Japan
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Gillaizeau-Gauthier I, Royer J, Husson HP. Toward an Asymmetric General Access to Azabicyclo[n.2.1]alkanes According to the CN(R,S) Method. European J Org Chem 2002. [DOI: 10.1002/1099-0690(200205)2002:9<1484::aid-ejoc1484>3.0.co;2-g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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IWAMI N, INAMORI Y, SUGIURA N, MATSUMURA M. Degradation Characteristics of Toxic Microcystis viridis by Mastigophora, Monas guttula Using Aquatic Large Scale Microcosm. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1996. [DOI: 10.2965/jswe.19.140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Abdel-Rahman S, el-Ayouty YM, Kamael HA. Characterization of heptapeptide toxins extracted from Microcystis aeruginosa (Egyptian isolate). Comparison with some synthesized analogs. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PEPTIDE AND PROTEIN RESEARCH 1993; 41:1-7. [PMID: 8382198 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3011.1993.tb00108.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Four toxic peptides from local fresh water cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa were purified and identified by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and ion spray mass spectroscopic studies as: RR; YR; LR and LA with molecular weights of 1006.8, 1073, 984.8 and 910.6 respectively. Amino acid analysis indicated the presence of equimolar amounts of aspartic acid, glutamic acid, arginine, leucine and tyrosine, in addition to both alanine and dehydroalanine. Mouse assay toxicity indicated that the first two peptides, at the peak area of RR, YR, were highly toxic with LD50 20, 18.2 micrograms/kg body weight; however, the latter two, at the peak areas LR and LA, have a lesser toxicity with LD50 36 and 40 micrograms/kg body weight respectively. Three linear peptide analogs to those naturally found devoid of Adda were synthesized using the continuous flow technique. HPLC pure synthesized analog products were tested for toxicity using male mice (i.p. injection). None of them induced toxic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Abdel-Rahman
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Zagazig University, Egypt
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Henning K, Meyer H, Kraatz-Wadsack G, Cremer J. Detection of a cytotoxic substance produced by the cyanobacteriumMicrocystis aeruginosa strain PCC 7806: Isolation and differentiation from the peptide toxin microcystin-LR by cytotoxicity assays. Curr Microbiol 1992. [DOI: 10.1007/bf01571020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Nakano M, Nakano Y, Saito-Taki T, Mori N, Kojima M, Ohtake A, Shirai M. Toxicity of Microcystis aeruginosa K-139 strain. Microbiol Immunol 1989; 33:787-92. [PMID: 2511394 DOI: 10.1111/j.1348-0421.1989.tb00964.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Toxicity of the cells of a newly established axenic Microcystis aeruginosa K-139 strain to mice was studied. LD50 of the cells harvested in the mid-log phase was 7.3 mg/kg. The organs of acute dead mice were examined histopathologically. The blood congestion and necrosis of the parenchymal cells around the central veins in the liver were observed, but other organs seemed to be normal. The liver damage was confirmed by the tests of glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (GOT) and glutamic pyruvic transaminase (GPT) activities in the sera of the mice after the injection with the K-139 cells. Furthermore, the K-139 cells were capable of inducing interleukin 1 (IL-1) production by peritoneal macrophages in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Nakano
- Department of Microbiology, Jichi Medical School, Tochigi
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Martin C, Codd GA, Siegelman HW, Weckesser J. Lipopolysaccharides and polysaccharides of the cell envelope of toxic Microcystis aeruginosa strains. Arch Microbiol 1989. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00447017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Dierstein R, Kaiser I, Weckesser JÃ. Rapid determination ofMicrocystissp. toxins by reversed-phase liquid chromatography. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1988. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1988.tb02705.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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Painuly P, Perez R, Fukai T, Shimizu Y. The structure of a cyclic peptide toxin, cyanogenosin-rr from microcystis aeruginosa. Tetrahedron Lett 1988. [DOI: 10.1016/0040-4039(88)80002-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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18
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Shirai M, Takamura Y, Sakuma H, Kojima M, Nakano M. Toxicity and delayed type hypersensitivity caused by Microcystis blooms from Lake Kasumigaura. Microbiol Immunol 1986; 30:731-5. [PMID: 3095614 DOI: 10.1111/j.1348-0421.1986.tb02999.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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19
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Runnegar MT, Falconer IR. Effect of toxin from the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa on ultrastructural morphology and actin polymerization in isolated hepatocytes. Toxicon 1986; 24:109-15. [PMID: 3085291 DOI: 10.1016/0041-0101(86)90112-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Freshly isolated rat hepatocytes incubated with the hepatotoxin from the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa are rapidly deformed (blebbed). Transmission electron microscopy shows the appearance of unusual intracellular structures and rearrangement of cellular organelles, without any change in the polymerization state of actin. Cytochalasin E (20 microM), a fungal metabolite that causes blebbing of hepatocytes, had no significant effect on the polymerization state of cellular actin, but if Microcystis toxin (10 microM) was added together with cytochalasin E (20 microM), there was a significant increase (from 30% to 44%) in the proportion of unpolymerized G-actin in hepatocytes. These findings are in contrast to the effect of phalloidin (12.5 - 37.5 microM), a peptide hepatotoxin from the poisonous mushroom Amanita phalloides, which also causes blebbing of hepatocytes, and was shown in this study to decrease the level of unpolymerized G-actin in the cells to below measurable levels when added by itself or together with Microcystis toxin or cytochalasin E.
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Tufariello JJ, Meckler H, Senaratne KA. The use of nitrones in the synthesis of anatoxin-a, very fast death factor. Tetrahedron 1985. [DOI: 10.1016/s0040-4020(01)96699-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Barnet YM, Daft MJ, Stewart WD. The effect of suspended particulate material on cyanobacteria--cyanophage interactions in liquid culture. THE JOURNAL OF APPLIED BACTERIOLOGY 1984; 56:109-15. [PMID: 6423604 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.1984.tb04701.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The effect of the lytic phage LPP-DUN1 on the cyanobacterium Plectonema boryanum has been investigated in batch and in continuous cultures in the presence and absence of silt. In batch culture Plectonema without added phage grew normally; the presence of phage caused rapid lysis of the cyanobacterium and the addition of silt prevented lysis by the phage. In continuous culture the numbers of cyanobacterial cells and phage particles oscillated in a reciprocal manner, but the addition of silt damped down the oscillations in Plectonema biomass without decreasing the numbers of phage particles isolated from the cultures. The presence of silt thus appears to protect the cyanobacterium from lysis by phage, although the total numbers of phage particles are relatively unaffected by the silt, at least in the short-term.
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Microbial Biomass from Renewables: A Second Review of Alternatives. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1984. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-040307-3.50013-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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23
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Williams DH. Application of fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry to structural problems in organic chemistry. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1983. [DOI: 10.1016/0020-7381(83)85100-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Grabow WO, Du Randt WC, Prozesky OW, Scott WE. Microcystis aeruginosa toxin: cell culture toxicity, hemolysis, and mutagenicity assays. Appl Environ Microbiol 1982; 43:1425-33. [PMID: 6808921 PMCID: PMC244250 DOI: 10.1128/aem.43.6.1425-1433.1982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Crude toxin was prepared by lyophilization and extraction of toxic Microcystis aeruginosa from four natural sources and a unicellular laboratory culture. The responses of cultures of liver (Mahlavu and PCL/PRF/5), lung (MRC-5), cervix (HeLa), ovary (CHO-K1), and kidney (BGM, MA-104, and Vero) cell lines to these preparations did not differ significantly from one another, indicating that toxicity was not specific for liver cells. The results of a trypan blue staining test showed that the toxin disrupted cell membrane permeability within a few minutes. Human, mouse, rat, sheep, and Muscovy duck erythrocytes were also lysed within a few minutes. Hemolysis was temperature dependent, and the reaction seemed to follow first-order kinetics. Escherichia coli, Streptococcus faecalis, and Tetrahymena pyriformis were not significantly affected by the toxin. The toxin yielded negative results in Ames/Salmonella mutagenicity assays. Microtiter cell culture, trypan blue, and hemolysis assays for Microcystis toxin are described. The effect of the toxin on mammalian cell cultures was characterized by extensive disintegration of cells and was distinguishable from the effects of E. coli enterotoxin, toxic chemicals, and pesticides. A possible reason for the acute lethal effect of Microcystis toxin, based on cytolytic activity, is discussed.
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Codd G, Carmichael W. Toxicity of a clonal isolate of the cyanobacteriumMicrocystis aeruginosafrom Great Britain. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1982. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1982.tb08296.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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Botes DP, Kruger H, Viljoen CC. Isolation and characterization of four toxins from the blue-green alga, Microcystis aeruginosa. Toxicon 1982; 20:945-54. [PMID: 6819659 DOI: 10.1016/0041-0101(82)90097-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Two alternative procedures for the isolation of toxins from the blue-green alga, Microcystis aeruginosa forma aeruginosa, are described. A novel approach is reported, whereby contaminating impurities are succinylated, exploiting the absence of free amino groups in toxin variants. All toxin variants comprise a hydrocarbon blocking group, five amino acid residues detectable by conventional means, while methylamine is liberated upon acid hydrolysis. Possible structural features are discussed relating to the observed chemical and physical properties of the toxins.
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Carmichael WW, Bent PE. Hemagglutination method for detection of freshwater cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) toxins. Appl Environ Microbiol 1981; 41:1383-8. [PMID: 6787984 PMCID: PMC243927 DOI: 10.1128/aem.41.6.1383-1388.1981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Strains of the freshwater cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) Anabaena flosaquae and Microcystis aeruginosa produced toxins that caused intermittent but repeated cases of livestock, waterfowl, and other animal deaths. They also caused illness, especially gastrointestinal, in humans. The most common group of toxins produced by these two species were peptide toxins termed microcystin, M. Aeruginosa type c, and anatoxin-c. A method was found to detect the toxins which utilizes their ability to cause agglutination of isolated blood cells from mice, rats, and humans. The method could detect the toxin in samples from natural algal blooms, laboratory cultures, and toxin extracts. The method consists of: (i) washing lyophilized cyanobacteria cells with physiological saline (0.9% NaCl), (ii) centrifuging the suspension and then mixing portions of the cell-free supernatant with equal volumes of saline-washed erythrocytes in V-shaped microtiter plates, (iii) allowing the mixture to stand for 3 to 4 h, and (iv) scoring the presence of the toxin as indicated by blood cell agglutination. Nontoxic strains, as determined by intraperitoneal mouse bioassay of cyanobacteria or green algae, did not produce an agglutination response.
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