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Shangguan M, Guo Y, Liao Z. Shipborne single-photon fluorescence oceanic lidar: instrumentation and inversion. OPTICS EXPRESS 2024; 32:10204-10218. [PMID: 38571237 DOI: 10.1364/oe.515477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2024] [Indexed: 04/05/2024]
Abstract
Laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) technology has been widely applied in remote sensing of aquatic phytoplankton. However, due to the weak fluorescence signal induced by laser excitation and the significant attenuation of laser in water, profiling detection becomes challenging. Moreover, it remains difficult to simultaneously retrieve the attenuation coefficient (K l i d a r m f) and the fluorescence volume scattering function at 180° (βf) through a single fluorescence lidar. To address these issues, a novel all-fiber fluorescence oceanic lidar is proposed, characterized by: 1) obtaining subsurface fluorescence profiles using single-photon detection technology, and 2) introducing the Klett inversion method for fluorescence lidar to simultaneously retrieve K l i d a r m f and βf. According to theoretical analysis, the maximum relative error of βf for the chlorophyll concentration ranging from 0.01 mg/m3 to 10 mg/m3 within a water depth of 10 m is less than 20%, while the maximum relative error of K l i d a r m f is less than 10%. Finally, the shipborne single-photon fluorescence lidar was deployed on the experimental vessel for continuous experiments of over 9 hours at fixed stations in the offshore area, validating its profiling detection capability. These results demonstrate the potential of lidar in profiling detection of aquatic phytoplankton, providing support for studying the dynamic changes and environmental responses of subsurface phytoplankton.
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Shangguan M, Guo Y, Liao Z, Lee Z. Sensing profiles of the volume scattering function at 180° using a single-photon oceanic fluorescence lidar. OPTICS EXPRESS 2023; 31:40393-40410. [PMID: 38041342 DOI: 10.1364/oe.505615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/03/2023]
Abstract
A novel oceanic fluorescence lidar technique has been proposed and demonstrated for remotely sensing the volume scattering function at 180° (βf), which can be used to further retrieve the profiles of the absorption coefficient of phytoplankton (aph) at 532 nm and chlorophyll concentration (Chl). This scheme has these features. 1) The single-photon detection technology is employed to enhance the detection sensitivity to the single-photon level, enabling the oceanic lidar to obtain fluorescence backscatter profiles. 2) In terms of algorithms, the Raman backscattered signals of the water are utilized to normalize the backscattered signals of chlorophyll fluorescence, effectively minimizing the depth-dependent variation of the differential lidar attenuation coefficient (Δ K l i d a r f r). To reduce the contamination of fluorescence signals in the Raman backscatter signals, a Raman filter with a bandwidth of 6 nm was chosen. Subsequently, a perturbation method is utilized to invert the βf of the fluorescence lidar. Finally, aph and Chl profiles can be inverted based on empirical models. 3) The value of Δ K l i d a r f r used in inversion is obtained through a semi-analytic Monte Carlo simulation. According to theoretical analysis, the maximum relative error of βf for Chl ranging from 0.01 mg/m3 to 10 mg/m3 is less than 13 %. To validate this approach, a field experiment was conducted aboard the R/V Tan Kah Kee in the South China Sea from September 4th to September 5th, 2022, resulting in continuous subsurface profiles of βf, aph, and Chl. These measurements confirm the robustness and reliability of the oceanic single-photon fluorescence lidar system and the inversion algorithm.
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Churnside JH, Shaw JA. Lidar remote sensing of the aquatic environment: invited. APPLIED OPTICS 2020; 59:C92-C99. [PMID: 32400573 DOI: 10.1364/ao.59.000c92] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/07/2019] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This paper is a review of lidar remote sensing of the aquatic environment. The optical properties of seawater relevant to lidar remote sensing are described. The three main theoretical approaches to understanding the performance of lidar are considered (the time-dependent radiative transfer equation, Monte Carlo simulations, and the quasi-single-scattering assumption). Basic lidar instrument design considerations are presented, and examples of lidar studies from surface vessels, aircraft, and satellites are given.
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Mohammed GH, Colombo R, Middleton EM, Rascher U, van der Tol C, Nedbal L, Goulas Y, Pérez-Priego O, Damm A, Meroni M, Joiner J, Cogliati S, Verhoef W, Malenovský Z, Gastellu-Etchegorry JP, Miller JR, Guanter L, Moreno J, Moya I, Berry JA, Frankenberg C, Zarco-Tejada PJ. Remote sensing of solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF) in vegetation: 50 years of progress. REMOTE SENSING OF ENVIRONMENT 2019; 231:111177. [PMID: 33414568 PMCID: PMC7787158 DOI: 10.1016/j.rse.2019.04.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Remote sensing of solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF) is a rapidly advancing front in terrestrial vegetation science, with emerging capability in space-based methodologies and diverse application prospects. Although remote sensing of SIF - especially from space - is seen as a contemporary new specialty for terrestrial plants, it is founded upon a multi-decadal history of research, applications, and sensor developments in active and passive sensing of chlorophyll fluorescence. Current technical capabilities allow SIF to be measured across a range of biological, spatial, and temporal scales. As an optical signal, SIF may be assessed remotely using highly-resolved spectral sensors and state-of-the-art algorithms to distinguish the emission from reflected and/or scattered ambient light. Because the red to far-red SIF emission is detectable non-invasively, it may be sampled repeatedly to acquire spatio-temporally explicit information about photosynthetic light responses and steady-state behaviour in vegetation. Progress in this field is accelerating with innovative sensor developments, retrieval methods, and modelling advances. This review distills the historical and current developments spanning the last several decades. It highlights SIF heritage and complementarity within the broader field of fluorescence science, the maturation of physiological and radiative transfer modelling, SIF signal retrieval strategies, techniques for field and airborne sensing, advances in satellite-based systems, and applications of these capabilities in evaluation of photosynthesis and stress effects. Progress, challenges, and future directions are considered for this unique avenue of remote sensing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Roberto Colombo
- Remote Sensing of Environmental Dynamics Lab., University of Milano - Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Uwe Rascher
- Forschungszentrum Jülich, Institute of Bio- and Geosciences, IBG-2: Plant Sciences, Jülich, Germany
| | - Christiaan van der Tol
- University of Twente, Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Ladislav Nedbal
- Forschungszentrum Jülich, Institute of Bio- and Geosciences, IBG-2: Plant Sciences, Jülich, Germany
| | - Yves Goulas
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique (LMD), Ecole Polytechnique, Palaiseau, France
| | - Oscar Pérez-Priego
- Department of Biogeochemical Integration, Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry, Jena, Germany
| | - Alexander Damm
- Department of Geography, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Duebendorf, Switzerland
| | - Michele Meroni
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Ispra (VA), Italy
| | - Joanna Joiner
- NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, United States
| | - Sergio Cogliati
- Remote Sensing of Environmental Dynamics Lab., University of Milano - Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Wouter Verhoef
- University of Twente, Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Zbyněk Malenovský
- Department of Geography and Spatial Sciences, School of Technology, Environments and Design, College of Sciences and Engineering, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
| | | | - John R. Miller
- Department of Earth and Space Science and Engineering, York University, Toronto, Canada
| | - Luis Guanter
- German Research Center for Geosciences (GFZ), Remote Sensing Section, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Jose Moreno
- Department of Earth Physics and Thermodynamics, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Ismael Moya
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique (LMD), Ecole Polytechnique, Palaiseau, France
| | - Joseph A. Berry
- Department of Global Ecology, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Stanford, California, United States
| | - Christian Frankenberg
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, United States
| | - Pablo J. Zarco-Tejada
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Ispra (VA), Italy
- Instituto de Agriculture Sostenible (IAS), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Córdoba, Spain
- Department of Infrastructure Engineering, Melbourne School of Engineering, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- School of Agriculture and Food, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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The Potential of Reflectance and Laser Induced Luminescence Spectroscopy for Near-Field Rare Earth Element Detection in Mineral Exploration. REMOTE SENSING 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/rs11010021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
New energy, transport, computer and telecommunication technologies require an increasing supply of rare earth elements (REEs). As a consequence, adequate and robust detection methods become essential for the exploration and discovery of new deposits, the improved characterization of existing deposits and the future recycling of today’s high-tech products. Within this paper, we investigate the potential of combining passive reflectance (imaging and point sampling) with laser stimulated luminescence (point sampling) spectroscopic measurements across the visible, near and shortwave infrared for REE detection in non-invasive near-field mineral exploration. We analyse natural REE-bearing mineral samples from main REE-deposits around the world and focus on challenges such as the discrimination of overlapping spectroscopic features and the influence of the mineral type on detectability, feature position and mineral matrix luminescence. We demonstrate that the cross-validation of results from both methods increases the robustness and sensitivity, provides the potential for semi-quantification and enables the time- and cost-efficient detection of economically important REE, including Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Dy, Er, Yb and potentially also Ho and Tm.
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Hostetler CA, Behrenfeld MJ, Hu Y, Hair JW, Schulien JA. Spaceborne Lidar in the Study of Marine Systems. ANNUAL REVIEW OF MARINE SCIENCE 2018; 10:121-147. [PMID: 28961071 PMCID: PMC7394243 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-marine-121916-063335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Satellite passive ocean color instruments have provided an unbroken ∼20-year record of global ocean plankton properties, but this measurement approach has inherent limitations in terms of spatial-temporal sampling and ability to resolve vertical structure within the water column. These limitations can be addressed by coupling ocean color data with measurements from a spaceborne lidar. Airborne lidars have been used for decades to study ocean subsurface properties, but recent breakthroughs have now demonstrated that plankton properties can be measured with a satellite lidar. The satellite lidar era in oceanography has arrived. Here, we present a review of the lidar technique, its applications in marine systems, a perspective on what can be accomplished in the near future with an ocean- and atmosphere-optimized satellite lidar, and a vision for a multiplatform virtual constellation of observational assets that would enable a three-dimensional reconstruction of global ocean ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris A Hostetler
- Langley Research Center, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Hampton, Virginia 23681-2199, USA;
| | - Michael J Behrenfeld
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331-2902, USA
| | - Yongxiang Hu
- Langley Research Center, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Hampton, Virginia 23681-2199, USA;
| | - Johnathan W Hair
- Langley Research Center, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Hampton, Virginia 23681-2199, USA;
| | - Jennifer A Schulien
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331-2902, USA
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Chekalyuk A, Hafez M. Analysis of spectral excitation for measurements of fluorescence constituents in natural waters. OPTICS EXPRESS 2013; 21:29255-29268. [PMID: 24514478 DOI: 10.1364/oe.21.029255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Field measurements of chlorophyll-a (Chl), phycoerythrin (PE), chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM), and variable fluorescence (F(v)/F(m)) in diverse waters of the California Current, Mediterranean Sea and Gulf of Mexico using 375, 405, 510 and 532 nm laser excitation wavelengths (EW) are analyzed. EW = 375 and 405 nm were found more suitable for Chl assessment in high-Chl (> 10 μg/l) waters. Both EW = 532 and 510 nm can be used to efficiently stimulate PE fluorescence for structural characterization of phytoplankton communities. EW = 375 nm and 405 nm can provide best results for CDOM assessments in offshore oceanic waters; the green EWs can be also used for CDOM measurements in fresh and estuarine water types in conjunction with spectral discrimination between CDOM and PE fluorescence. Both EW = 405 and 510 are suitable for photo-physiological F(v)/F(m) assessments, though using EW = 405 nm may result in underestimation of PE-containing phytoplankton groups present in mixed phytoplankton assemblages.
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Hoge FE, Lyon PE, Wright CW, Swift RN, Yungel JK. Chlorophyll biomass in the global oceans: airborne lidar retrieval using fluorescence of both chlorophyll and chromophoric dissolved organic matter. APPLIED OPTICS 2005; 44:2857-62. [PMID: 15943339 DOI: 10.1364/ao.44.002857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
For three decades airborne laser-induced fluorescence has demonstrated value for chlorophyll biomass retrieval in wide-area oceanic field experiments, satellite validation, and algorithm development. A new chlorophyll biomass retrieval theory is developed using laser-induced and water Raman normalized fluorescence of both (a) chlorophyll and (b) chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM). This airborne lidar retrieval theory is then independently confirmed by chlorophyll biomass obtained from concurrent (1) ship-cruise retrievals, (2) satellite inherent optical property (IOP) biomass retrievals, and (3) satellite standard band-ratio chlorophyll biomass retrievals. The new airborne lidar chlorophyll and CDOM fluorescence-based chlorophyll biomass retrieval is found to be more robust than prior lidar methods that used chlorophyll fluorescence only. Future research is recommended to further explain the underlying influence of CDOM on chlorophyll production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank E Hoge
- NASA, Goddard Space Flight Center, Wallops Flight Facility, Wallops Island, Virginia 23337-0000, USA.
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Lefcourt AM, Kim MS, Chen YR. Detection of fecal contamination on apples with nanosecond-scale time-resolved imaging of laser-induced fluorescence. APPLIED OPTICS 2005; 44:1160-1170. [PMID: 15765694 DOI: 10.1364/ao.44.001160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Detection of apples contaminated with feces is a public health concern. We found that time-resolved imaging of apples artificially contaminated with feces allowed optimization of timing parameters for detection. Dairy feces were applied to Red Delicious and Golden Delicious apples. Laser-induced fluorescence responses were imaged by use of a gated intensified camera. We developed algorithms to automatically detect contamination iteratively by using one half of the apples and validated them by applying the optimized algorithms to the remaining apples. Results show that consideration of the timing of fluorescence responses to pulsed-laser excitation can enhance detection of feces on apples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan M Lefcourt
- Instrumentation and Sensing Laboratory, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Building 303 Powder Mill Road, Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA.
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Kim MS, Lefcourt AM, Chen YR. Multispectral laser-induced fluorescence imaging system for large biological samples. APPLIED OPTICS 2003; 42:3927-3934. [PMID: 12868832 DOI: 10.1364/ao.42.003927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
A laser-induced fluorescence imaging system developed to capture multispectral fluorescence emission images simultaneously from a relatively large target object is described. With an expanded, 355-nm Nd:YAG laser as the excitation source, the system captures fluorescence emission images in the blue, green, red, and far-red regions of the spectrum centered at 450, 550, 678, and 730 nm, respectively, from a 30-cm-diameter target area in ambient light. Images of apples and of pork meat artificially contaminated with diluted animal feces have demonstrated the versatility of fluorescence imaging techniques for potential applications in food safety inspection. Regions of contamination, including sites that were not readily visible to the human eye, could easily be identified from the images.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moon S Kim
- Instrumentation and Sensing Laboratory, U.S. Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service, Building 303, Powder Mill Road, Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA.
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Kim MS, McMurtrey JE, Mulchi CL, Daughtry CS, Chappelle EW, Chen YR. Steady-state multispectral fluorescence imaging system for plant leaves. APPLIED OPTICS 2001; 40:157-166. [PMID: 18356987 DOI: 10.1364/ao.40.000157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
We present a detailed description of a laboratory-based multispectral fluorescence imaging system (MFIS) for plant leaves. Fluorescence emissions with 360-nm excitation are captured at four spectral bands in the blue, green, red, and far-red regions of the spectrum centered at 450, 550, 680, and 740 nm, respectively. Preliminary experiments conducted with soybean leaves treated with a herbicide (DCMU) and short-term exposures to moderately elevated tropospheric ozone environment demonstrated the utilities of the newly developed MFIS. In addition, with the aid of fluorescence images of normal soybean leaves, several mechanisms governing the fluorescence emissions are discussed. Imaging results illustrate the versatility of fluorescence imaging, which provides information on the spatial variability of fluorescence patterns over leaf samples.
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12
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Anderson D, Nachman P, Estell R, Ruekgauer T, Havstad K, Fredrickson E, Murray L. The potential of laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) spectra of sheep feces to determine diet botanical composition. Small Rumin Res 1996. [DOI: 10.1016/0921-4488(95)00817-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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13
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14
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Gitelson AA, Dubovitzkii GA, Mittenzwey KH. Grundlagenexperimente zur Laserfernerkundung von Binnengewässern. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1990. [DOI: 10.1002/aheh.19900180505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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15
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16
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Hoge FE, Swift RN, Yungel JK. Active-passive airborne ocean color measurement. 2: Applications. APPLIED OPTICS 1986; 25:48. [PMID: 18231135 DOI: 10.1364/ao.25.000048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
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17
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Hoge FE, Berry RE, Swift RN. Active-passive airborne ocean color measurement. 1: Instrumentation. APPLIED OPTICS 1986; 25:39. [PMID: 18231134 DOI: 10.1364/ao.25.000039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
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18
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Chappelle EW, Wood FM, Newcomb WW, McMurtrey JE. Laser-induced fluorescence of green plants. 3: LIF spectral signatures of five major plant types. APPLIED OPTICS 1985; 24:74-80. [PMID: 18216907 DOI: 10.1364/ao.24.000074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
A technique amenable to remote sensing use which utilizes laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) properties of plants has been successfully used in the laboratory to identify five major plant types. These included herbaceous dicots, herbaceous monocots, conifers, hardwoods, and algae. Each of these plant types exhibited a characteristic LIF spectra when excited by a pulsed N2 laser emitting at 337 nm. Although monocots and dicots possess common fluorescence maxima at 440, 685, and 740 nm, they could be differentiated from one another by using the ratio of the square of the fluorescence intensity at 440 nm to the nonsquared intensity at 685 nm, i.e., (440)2/685. In all cases, monocots yielded a significantly higher ratio. Conifers have fluorescence maxima at 440, 525, and 740 nm but none at 685 nm. Hardwoods exhibited fluorescence at 440, 525, 685, and 740 nm. Algae had very low fluorescence at 440 nm, no fluorescence at 525 nm, and fluorescence maxima at 685 and 740 nm. For algae, the ratio of the fluorescence intensity at 685 nm to that at 740 nm was much greater than that for monocots, dicots, and hardwoods. The potential use of the LIF technique for individual species identification is suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- E W Chappelle
- NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Earth Resources Branch, Greenbelt, Maryland 20771, USA
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Hoge FE, Swift RN, Yungel JK. Feasibility of airborne detection of laser-induced fluorescence emissions from green terrestrial plants. APPLIED OPTICS 1983; 22:2991. [PMID: 18200143 DOI: 10.1364/ao.22.002991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
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20
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Gehlhaar U. Computer simulations and theory of oceanographic fluorescence lidar signals: effect of sea surface structure. APPLIED OPTICS 1982; 21:3743-3755. [PMID: 20396310 DOI: 10.1364/ao.21.003743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
A 3-D computer simulation model has been developed using geometrical optics suitable for analyzing the effect of sea surface structure on oceanographic fluorescence lidar signals. Depth-resolved and depth-integrated signals reveal a considerable dependence on the surface structure. The results obtained by simulation are confirmed by a theoretical approach based on the transformation of solid angles by curved boundaries. Using statistical assumptions about the distribution of curvatures of the ocean surface, a general expression for this influence is found.
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Affiliation(s)
- U Gehlhaar
- Universitaet Oldenburg, Postfach 25 03, D2900 Oldenburg, Federal Republic of Germany
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21
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Gehlhaar U, Gunther KP, Luther J. Compact and highly sensitive fluorescence lidar for oceanographic measurements. APPLIED OPTICS 1981; 20:3318-3320. [PMID: 20333148 DOI: 10.1364/ao.20.003318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
A compact and highly sensitive helicopter-born fluorescence lidar is described. The single channel system is based on a high power, tunable laser. From an altitude of 70 m, selective detection of the tracer dye rhodamine B of less than 10(-10) g/cm(3) in natural waters is achieved.
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Hoge FE, Swift RN. Airborne simultaneous spectroscopic detection of laser-induced water Raman backscatter and fluorescence from chlorophyll a and other naturally occurring pigments. APPLIED OPTICS 1981; 20:3197-3205. [PMID: 20333121 DOI: 10.1364/ao.20.003197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
The airborne laser-induced spectral emission bands obtained simultaneously from water Raman backscatter and the fluorescence of chlorophyll and other naturally occurring waterborne pigments are reported here for the first time. The importance of this type data lies not only in its single-shot multispectral character but also in the application of the Raman line for correction or calibration of the spatial variation of the laser penetration depth without the need for in situ water attenuation measurements. The entire laser-induced fluorescence and Raman scatter emissions resulting from each separate 532-nm 10-nsec laser pulse are collected and spectrally dispersed in a diffraction grating spectrometer having forty photomultiplier tube detectors. Results from field experiments conducted in the North Sea and the Chesapeake Bay/Potomac River are presented. Difficulties involving the multispectral resolution of the induced emissions are addressed, and feasible solutions are suggested together with new instrument configurations and future research directions.
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23
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Capelle GA, Franks LA. Laboratory evaluation of two laser fluorosensor systems. APPLIED OPTICS 1979; 18:3579-3586. [PMID: 20216654 DOI: 10.1364/ao.18.003579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The characteristics and capabilities of two laboratory versions of a fluorosensor system built around N(2) and KrF lasers are compared. Both systems were tested to determine the feasibility of remotely detecting the fluorescent emission of organic effluents associated with coal processing. System performance was measured under daylight and nighttime conditions for both actual effluents and known reference solutions and is predicted for an airborne system. Experiments on a multichannel system are also described.
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Leonard DA, Caputo B, Hoge FE. Remote sensing of subsurface water temperature by Raman scattering. APPLIED OPTICS 1979; 18:1732-1745. [PMID: 20212541 DOI: 10.1364/ao.18.001732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The application of Raman scattering to remote sensing of subsurface water temperature and salinity is considered, and both theoretical and experimental aspects of the technique are discussed. Recent experimental field measurements obtained in coastal waters and on a trans-Atlantic/Mediterranean research cruise are correlated with theoretical expectations. It is concluded that the Raman technique for remote sensing of subsurface water temperature has been brought from theoretical and laboratory stages to the point where practical utilization can now be developed.
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25
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Sato T, Suzuki Y, Kashiwagi H, Nanjo M, Kakui Y. Laser radar for remote detection of oil spills. APPLIED OPTICS 1978; 17:3798-3803. [PMID: 20208611 DOI: 10.1364/ao.17.003798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
A laser radar system that is capable of remotely detecting oil spills, in the daytime and at night, in sea water has been developed. The system employs the second harmonic and fourth harmonic of a repetitively Q-switched Nd:YAG laser as the light sources and a gated optical multichannel analyzer as a high speed detection device. The results show that the comparison of backscattering spectra obtained from different samples enables us to detect and characterize oil spills in sea water. Raman backscattering and backscattered fluorescence of kerosene, light oil, heavy oil, and sea water have been investigated both in the laboratory and in the harbor of Seto Inland Sea of Japan by using the laser radar system described above. The SNR of this laser radar system for the detection of Raman backscattering of kerosene and fluorescence of oil is also described.
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Measures RM. Lidar equation analysis allowing for target lifetime, laser pulse duration, and detector integration period. APPLIED OPTICS 1977; 16:1092-1103. [PMID: 20168642 DOI: 10.1364/ao.16.001092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
A detailed study of the lidar equation has been made for both scattering and fluorescent targets. Allowance has been made for the effects of finite excited state lifetime, optical depth, laser pulse duration, detector integration period, and laser pulse shape. Analytical solutions have been obtained, and graphical solutions are also presented to aid in evaluating the magnitude of the correction factor appropriate to several cases of interest.
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Kim HH. Airborne bathymetric charting using pulsed blue-green lasers. APPLIED OPTICS 1977; 16:46-56. [PMID: 20168426 DOI: 10.1364/ao.16.000046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Laboratory and airborne experiments have proven the feasibility and demonstrated the techniques of an airborne pulsed laser system for rapidly mapping coastal water bathymetry. Water depths of 10 +/- 0.25 m were recorded in waters having an effective attenuation coefficient of 0.175 m(-1). A2-MW peak power Nd:YAG pulsed laser was flown at an altitude of 600 m. An advanced system, incorporating a mirror scanner, a high pulsed rate laser, and a good signal processor, could survey coastal zones at the rate of several square miles per hour.
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Levine JS, Rogowski RS. Fluorescence detection of organic molecules in the Jovian atmosphere. ORIGINS OF LIFE 1975; 6:395-9. [PMID: 1187102 DOI: 10.1007/bf01130340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
A search for fluorescent emission due to the presence of possible organic molecules in the Jovian atmosphere is described. We first consider natural Jovian fluorescent emission excited by precipitating auroral particles. Due to our lack of knowledge of the Jovian precipitation particle energies and fluxes we next consider fluorescent emission excited by a laser system aboard a Jupiter spacecraft. Laser-induced fluorescence is routinely used to monitor trace constituents and pollutants in the terrestrial atmosphere. Several spacecraft laser systems are currently under development. Our calculations indicate that laser-induced fluorescent detection is approximately two orders of magnitude more sensitive than rocket ultraviolet measurements of possible Jovian absorption features at 2600 A that have been attributed to the presence of adenine or benzene.
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Ornstein MH, Derr VE. Prepulse enhancement of flashlamp pumped dye laser. APPLIED OPTICS 1974; 13:2100-2104. [PMID: 20134635 DOI: 10.1364/ao.13.002100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
A simple technique has been developed that increases the power output of a conventional flashlamp pumped dye laser by typically one order of magnitude and, for some dyes, much more. This is achieved by igniting a low-energy prepulse discharge through the flashlamp just prior to firing the main flashlamp discharge.
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