1
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van Klink R. Delivering on a promise: futureproofing automated insect monitoring methods. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2024; 379:20230105. [PMID: 38705192 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2023.0105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 10/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Due to rapid technological innovations, the automated monitoring of insect assemblages comes within reach. However, this continuous innovation endangers the methodological continuity needed for calculating reliable biodiversity trends in the future. Maintaining methodological continuity over prolonged periods of time is not trivial, since technology improves, reference libraries grow and both the hard- and software used now may no longer be available in the future. Moreover, because data on many species are collected at the same time, there will be no simple way of calibrating the outputs of old and new devices. To ensure that reliable long-term biodiversity trends can be calculated using the collected data, I make four recommendations: (1) Construct devices to last for decades, and have a five-year overlap period when devices are replaced. (2) Construct new devices to resemble the old ones, especially when some kind of attractant (e.g. light) is used. Keep extremely detailed metadata on collection, detection and identification methods, including attractants, to enable this. (3) Store the raw data (sounds, images, DNA extracts, radar/lidar detections) for future reprocessing with updated classification systems. (4) Enable forward and backward compatibility of the processed data, for example by in-silico data 'degradation' to match the older data quality. This article is part of the theme issue 'Towards a toolkit for global insect biodiversity monitoring'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roel van Klink
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Puschstrasse 4, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
- Department of Computer Science, Martin-Luther-University, Halle-Wittenberg, 06099 Halle, Germany
- WBBS Foundation, Kanaaldijk 36, 9409 TV Loon, The Netherlands
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2
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Holland R, Castro G, Chavana-Bryant C, Levy R, Moat J, Robson T, Wilkinson T, Wilkes P, Yang W, Disney M. Giant sequoia ( Sequoiadendron giganteum) in the UK: carbon storage potential and growth rates. R Soc Open Sci 2024; 11:230603. [PMID: 38481981 PMCID: PMC10933539 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.230603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Giant sequoias (Sequoiadendron giganteum) are some of the UK's largest trees, despite only being introduced in the mid-nineteenth century. There are an estimated half a million giant sequoias and closely related coastal redwoods (Sequoia sempervirens) in the UK. Given the recent interest in planting more trees, partly due to their carbon sequestration potential and also their undoubted public appeal, an understanding of their growth capability is important. However, little is known about their growth and carbon uptake under UK conditions. Here, we focus on S. giganteum and use three-dimensional terrestrial laser scanning to perform detailed structural measurements of 97 individuals at three sites covering a range of different conditions, to estimate aboveground biomass (AGB) and annual biomass accumulation rates. We show that UK-grown S. giganteum can sequester carbon at a rate of 85 kg yr-1, varying with climate, management and age. We develop new UK-specific allometric models for S. giganteum that fit the observed AGB with r 2 > 0.93 and bias < 2% and can be used to estimate S. giganteum biomass more generally. This study provides the first estimate of the growth and carbon sequestration of UK open-grown S. giganteum and provides a baseline for estimating their longer-term carbon sequestration capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ross Holland
- East Point Geo, Ashgrove House, Monument Park, ChalgroveOX44 7RW, UK
- Department of Geography, University College London, Gower Street, LondonWC1E 6BT, UK
| | | | | | - Ron Levy
- Independent Researcher, RayleighSS6 9HB, UK
| | - Justin Moat
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, RichmondTW9 3AE, UK
| | | | | | - Phil Wilkes
- Department of Geography, University College London, Gower Street, LondonWC1E 6BT, UK
- Department of Geography, NERC NCEO, University College London, Gower Street, LondonWC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Wanxin Yang
- Department of Geography, University College London, Gower Street, LondonWC1E 6BT, UK
- Department of Geography, NERC NCEO, University College London, Gower Street, LondonWC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Mathias Disney
- Department of Geography, University College London, Gower Street, LondonWC1E 6BT, UK
- Department of Geography, NERC NCEO, University College London, Gower Street, LondonWC1E 6BT, UK
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3
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Zhang H, Wang Y, Zhang M, Song Y, Qiu C, Lei Y, Jia P, Liang L, Zhang J, Qin L, Ning Y, Wang L. Deep Neural Network-Based Phase-Modulated Continuous-Wave LiDAR. Sensors (Basel) 2024; 24:1617. [PMID: 38475153 DOI: 10.3390/s24051617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2024] [Revised: 02/11/2024] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024]
Abstract
LiDAR has high accuracy and resolution and is widely used in various fields. In particular, phase-modulated continuous-wave (PhMCW) LiDAR has merits such as low power, high precision, and no need for laser frequency modulation. However, with decreasing signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), the noise on the signal waveform becomes so severe that the current methods to extract the time-of-flight are no longer feasible. In this paper, a novel method that uses deep neural networks to measure the pulse width is proposed. The effects of distance resolution and SNR on the performance are explored. Recognition accuracy reaches 81.4% at a 0.1 m distance resolution and the SNR is as low as 2. We simulate a scene that contains a vehicle, a tree, a house, and a background located up to 6 m away. The reconstructed point cloud has good fidelity, the object contours are clear, and the features are restored. More precisely, the three distances are 4.73 cm, 6.00 cm, and 7.19 cm, respectively, showing that the performance of the proposed method is excellent. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first work that employs a neural network to directly process LiDAR signals and to extract their time-of-flight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Luminescence and Applications, Changchun Institute of Optics, Fine Mechanics and Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130033, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yubing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Luminescence and Applications, Changchun Institute of Optics, Fine Mechanics and Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130033, China
| | | | - Yue Song
- State Key Laboratory of Luminescence and Applications, Changchun Institute of Optics, Fine Mechanics and Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130033, China
| | - Cheng Qiu
- State Key Laboratory of Luminescence and Applications, Changchun Institute of Optics, Fine Mechanics and Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130033, China
| | - Yuxin Lei
- State Key Laboratory of Luminescence and Applications, Changchun Institute of Optics, Fine Mechanics and Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130033, China
| | - Peng Jia
- State Key Laboratory of Luminescence and Applications, Changchun Institute of Optics, Fine Mechanics and Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130033, China
| | - Lei Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Luminescence and Applications, Changchun Institute of Optics, Fine Mechanics and Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130033, China
| | - Jianwei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Luminescence and Applications, Changchun Institute of Optics, Fine Mechanics and Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130033, China
| | - Li Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Luminescence and Applications, Changchun Institute of Optics, Fine Mechanics and Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130033, China
| | - Yongqiang Ning
- State Key Laboratory of Luminescence and Applications, Changchun Institute of Optics, Fine Mechanics and Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130033, China
| | - Lijun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Luminescence and Applications, Changchun Institute of Optics, Fine Mechanics and Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130033, China
- Peng Cheng Laboratory, Shenzhen 518055, China
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4
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Mochurad L. Implementation and analysis of a parallel kalman filter algorithm for lidar localization based on CUDA technology. Front Robot AI 2024; 11:1341689. [PMID: 38371349 PMCID: PMC10869572 DOI: 10.3389/frobt.2024.1341689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Navigation satellite systems can fail to work or work incorrectly in a number of conditions: signal shadowing, electromagnetic interference, atmospheric conditions, and technical problems. All of these factors can significantly affect the localization accuracy of autonomous driving systems. This emphasizes the need for other localization technologies, such as Lidar. Methods: The use of the Kalman filter in combination with Lidar can be very effective in various applications due to the synergy of their capabilities. The Kalman filter can improve the accuracy of lidar measurements by taking into account the noise and inaccuracies present in the measurements. Results: In this paper, we propose a parallel Kalman algorithm in three-dimensional space to speed up the computational speed of Lidar localization. At the same time, the initial localization accuracy of the latter is preserved. A distinctive feature of the proposed approach is that the Kalman localization algorithm itself is parallelized, rather than the process of building a map for navigation. The proposed algorithm allows us to obtain the result 3.8 times faster without compromising the localization accuracy, which was 3% for both cases, making it effective for real-time decision-making. Discussion: The reliability of this result is confirmed by a preliminary theoretical estimate of the acceleration rate based on Ambdahl's law. Accelerating the Kalman filter with CUDA for Lidar localization can be of significant practical value, especially in real-time and in conditions where large amounts of data from Lidar sensors need to be processed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lesia Mochurad
- Department of Artificial Intelligence, Lviv Polytechnic National University, Lviv, Ukraine
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5
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Tan H, Zhao X, Zhai C, Fu H, Chen L, Yang M. Design and experiments with a SLAM system for low-density canopy environments in greenhouses based on an improved Cartographer framework. Front Plant Sci 2024; 15:1276799. [PMID: 38362453 PMCID: PMC10867628 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2024.1276799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
To address the problem that the low-density canopy of greenhouse crops affects the robustness and accuracy of simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) algorithms, a greenhouse map construction method for agricultural robots based on multiline LiDAR was investigated. Based on the Cartographer framework, this paper proposes a map construction and localization method based on spatial downsampling. Taking suspended tomato plants planted in greenhouses as the research object, an adaptive filtering point cloud projection (AF-PCP) SLAM algorithm was designed. Using a wheel odometer, 16-line LiDAR point cloud data based on adaptive vertical projections were linearly interpolated to construct a map and perform high-precision pose estimation in a greenhouse with a low-density canopy environment. Experiments were carried out in canopy environments with leaf area densities (LADs) of 2.945-5.301 m2/m3. The results showed that the AF-PCP SLAM algorithm increased the average mapping area of the crop rows by 155.7% compared with that of the Cartographer algorithm. The mean error and coefficient of variation of the crop row length were 0.019 m and 0.217%, respectively, which were 77.9% and 87.5% lower than those of the Cartographer algorithm. The average maximum void length was 0.124 m, which was 72.8% lower than that of the Cartographer algorithm. The localization experiments were carried out at speeds of 0.2 m/s, 0.4 m/s, and 0.6 m/s. The average relative localization errors at these speeds were respectively 0.026 m, 0.029 m, and 0.046 m, and the standard deviation was less than 0.06 m. Compared with that of the track deduction algorithm, the average localization error was reduced by 79.9% with the proposed algorithm. The results show that our proposed framework can map and localize robots with precision even in low-density canopy environments in greenhouses, demonstrating the satisfactory capability of the proposed approach and highlighting its promising applications in the autonomous navigation of agricultural robots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoran Tan
- College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Intelligent Equipment Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xueguan Zhao
- Intelligent Equipment Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing, China
- National Engineering Research Center for Information Technology in Agriculture, Beijing, China
- Beijing PAIDE Science and Technology Development Co., Ltd, Beijing, China
| | - Changyuan Zhai
- Intelligent Equipment Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing, China
- National Engineering Research Center for Information Technology in Agriculture, Beijing, China
| | - Hao Fu
- Intelligent Equipment Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Liping Chen
- Intelligent Equipment Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing, China
- National Engineering Research Center for Information Technology in Agriculture, Beijing, China
| | - Minli Yang
- College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
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6
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Pogačnik L, Munih M. Modular Lidar System for Multiple Field-of-View Ranging. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 24:84. [PMID: 38202946 PMCID: PMC10781169 DOI: 10.3390/s24010084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
This paper explores the possibility of distributing the fields of view (FOVs) of a centralized lidar cluster using fixed mirrors for future use in safety applications in robotics and elsewhere. A custom modular lidar system with time-over-threshold (TOT) walk error compensation was developed for the experiments. It comprises a control board that provides the processing power and adjustable voltage regulation, and multiple individually addressable analogue front end (AFE) boards that each contain a transmitter, a receiver, time-to-digital (TDC) converters for pulse width measurements on the bot Tx and Rx side, and adjustable reference voltage generators for both the Tx and Rx pulse detection threshold. The lidar system's performance with a target in the direct line of sight is compared to the configurations where the FOV is redirected with up to three mirrors in different configurations. The results show that the light path through the neighboring mirrors introduces a minor but noticeable measurement error on a portion of the measurement range.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luka Pogačnik
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
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7
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Taneski F, Gyongy I, Al Abbas T, Henderson RK. Guided Direct Time-of-Flight Lidar Using Stereo Cameras for Enhanced Laser Power Efficiency. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:8943. [PMID: 37960642 PMCID: PMC10650695 DOI: 10.3390/s23218943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 10/28/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Self-driving vehicles demand efficient and reliable depth-sensing technologies. Lidar, with its capability for long-distance, high-precision measurement, is a crucial component in this pursuit. However, conventional mechanical scanning implementations suffer from reliability, cost, and frame rate limitations. Solid-state lidar solutions have emerged as a promising alternative, but the vast amount of photon data processed and stored using conventional direct time-of-flight (dToF) prevents long-distance sensing unless power-intensive partial histogram approaches are used. In this paper, we introduce a groundbreaking 'guided' dToF approach, harnessing external guidance from other onboard sensors to narrow down the depth search space for a power and data-efficient solution. This approach centers around a dToF sensor in which the exposed time window of independent pixels can be dynamically adjusted. We utilize a 64-by-32 macropixel dToF sensor and a pair of vision cameras to provide the guiding depth estimates. Our demonstrator captures a dynamic outdoor scene at 3 fps with distances up to 75 m. Compared to a conventional full histogram approach, on-chip data is reduced by over twenty times, while the total laser cycles in each frame are reduced by at least six times compared to any partial histogram approach. The capability of guided dToF to mitigate multipath reflections is also demonstrated. For self-driving vehicles where a wealth of sensor data is already available, guided dToF opens new possibilities for efficient solid-state lidar.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filip Taneski
- Institute for Integrated Micro and Nano Systems, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FF, UK (R.K.H.)
| | - Istvan Gyongy
- Institute for Integrated Micro and Nano Systems, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FF, UK (R.K.H.)
| | | | - Robert K. Henderson
- Institute for Integrated Micro and Nano Systems, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FF, UK (R.K.H.)
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8
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Bowman LA, Narayanan RM, Kane TJ, Bradley ES, Baran MS. Vehicle Detection and Attribution from a Multi-Sensor Dataset Using a Rule-Based Approach Combined with Data Fusion. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:8811. [PMID: 37960511 PMCID: PMC10648684 DOI: 10.3390/s23218811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Revised: 10/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Vehicle detection using data fusion techniques from overhead platforms (RGB/MSI imagery and LiDAR point clouds) with vector and shape data can be a powerful tool in a variety of fields, including, but not limited to, national security, disaster relief efforts, and traffic monitoring. Knowing the location and number of vehicles in a given area can provide insight into the surrounding activities and patterns of life, as well as support decision-making processes. While researchers have developed many approaches to tackling this problem, few have exploited the multi-data approach with a classical technique. In this paper, a primarily LiDAR-based method supported by RGB/MSI imagery and road network shapefiles has been developed to detect stationary vehicles. The addition of imagery and road networks, when available, offers an improved classification of points from LiDAR data and helps to reduce false positives. Furthermore, detected vehicles can be assigned various 3D, relational, and spectral attributes, as well as height profiles. This method was evaluated on the Houston, TX dataset provided by the IEEE 2018 GRSS Data Fusion Contest, which includes 1476 ground truth vehicles from LiDAR data. On this dataset, the algorithm achieved a 92% precision and 92% recall. It was also evaluated on the Vaihingen, Germany dataset provided by ISPRS, as well as data simulated using an image generation model called DIRSIG. Some known limitations of the algorithm include false positives caused by low vegetation and the inability to detect vehicles (1) in extremely close proximity with high precision and (2) from low-density point clouds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsey A. Bowman
- Applied Research Laboratory, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA 16801, USA; (L.A.B.); (M.S.B.)
| | - Ram M. Narayanan
- Department of Electrical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA;
| | - Timothy J. Kane
- Department of Electrical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA;
| | - Eliza S. Bradley
- Department of Student Affairs Research and Assessment, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA;
| | - Matthew S. Baran
- Applied Research Laboratory, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA 16801, USA; (L.A.B.); (M.S.B.)
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9
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Calders K, Brede B, Newnham G, Culvenor D, Armston J, Bartholomeus H, Griebel A, Hayward J, Junttila S, Lau A, Levick S, Morrone R, Origo N, Pfeifer M, Verbesselt J, Herold M. StrucNet: a global network for automated vegetation structure monitoring. Remote Sens Ecol Conserv 2023; 9:587-598. [PMID: 38505271 PMCID: PMC10946942 DOI: 10.1002/rse2.333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2022] [Revised: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
Climate change and increasing human activities are impacting ecosystems and their biodiversity. Quantitative measurements of essential biodiversity variables (EBV) and essential climate variables are used to monitor biodiversity and carbon dynamics and evaluate policy and management interventions. Ecosystem structure is at the core of EBVs and carbon stock estimation and can help to inform assessments of species and species diversity. Ecosystem structure is also used as an indirect indicator of habitat quality and expected species richness or species community composition. Spaceborne measurements can provide large-scale insight into monitoring the structural dynamics of ecosystems, but they generally lack consistent, robust, timely and detailed information regarding their full three-dimensional vegetation structure at local scales. Here we demonstrate the potential of high-frequency ground-based laser scanning to systematically monitor structural changes in vegetation. We present a proof-of-concept high-temporal ecosystem structure time series of 5 years in a temperate forest using terrestrial laser scanning (TLS). We also present data from automated high-temporal laser scanning that can allow upscaling of vegetation structure scanning, overcoming the limitations of a typically opportunistic TLS measurement approach. Automated monitoring will be a critical component to build a network of field monitoring sites that can provide the required calibration data for satellite missions to effectively monitor the structural dynamics of vegetation over large areas. Within this perspective, we reflect on how this network could be designed and discuss implementation pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim Calders
- CAVElab – Computational & Applied Vegetation Ecology, Department of EnvironmentGhent UniversityCoupure links 653Ghent9000Belgium
- School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern FinlandJoensuu80101Finland
| | - Benjamin Brede
- Helmholtz Center Potsdam GFZ German Research Centre for GeosciencesSection 1.4 Remote Sensing and GeoinformaticsTelegrafenbergPotsdam14473Germany
| | | | - Darius Culvenor
- Environmental Sensing SystemsBentleigh EastVictoria3165Australia
| | - John Armston
- Department of Geographical SciencesUniversity of MarylandCollege ParkMarylandUSA
| | - Harm Bartholomeus
- Laboratory of Geo‐Information Science and Remote SensingWageningen UniversityWageningen6708 PBthe Netherlands
| | - Anne Griebel
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney UniversityLocked Bag 1797PenrithNew South Wales2751Australia
| | - Jodie Hayward
- CSIRO564 Vanderlin DriveBerrimahNorthern Territory0828Australia
| | - Samuli Junttila
- School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern FinlandJoensuu80101Finland
| | - Alvaro Lau
- Laboratory of Geo‐Information Science and Remote SensingWageningen UniversityWageningen6708 PBthe Netherlands
| | - Shaun Levick
- CSIRO564 Vanderlin DriveBerrimahNorthern Territory0828Australia
| | - Rosalinda Morrone
- Climate and Earth Observation GroupNational Physical LaboratoryHampton Road, TeddingtonLondonUK
| | - Niall Origo
- Climate and Earth Observation GroupNational Physical LaboratoryHampton Road, TeddingtonLondonUK
| | - Marion Pfeifer
- School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle UniversityNewcastle Upon TyneNE1 7RUUK
| | - Jan Verbesselt
- Laboratory of Geo‐Information Science and Remote SensingWageningen UniversityWageningen6708 PBthe Netherlands
| | - Martin Herold
- Helmholtz Center Potsdam GFZ German Research Centre for GeosciencesSection 1.4 Remote Sensing and GeoinformaticsTelegrafenbergPotsdam14473Germany
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10
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Russo NJ, Davies AB, Blakey RV, Ordway EM, Smith TB. Feedback loops between 3D vegetation structure and ecological functions of animals. Ecol Lett 2023; 26:1597-1613. [PMID: 37419868 DOI: 10.1111/ele.14272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2022] [Revised: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 07/09/2023]
Abstract
Ecosystems function in a series of feedback loops that can change or maintain vegetation structure. Vegetation structure influences the ecological niche space available to animals, shaping many aspects of behaviour and reproduction. In turn, animals perform ecological functions that shape vegetation structure. However, most studies concerning three-dimensional vegetation structure and animal ecology consider only a single direction of this relationship. Here, we review these separate lines of research and integrate them into a unified concept that describes a feedback mechanism. We also show how remote sensing and animal tracking technologies are now available at the global scale to describe feedback loops and their consequences for ecosystem functioning. An improved understanding of how animals interact with vegetation structure in feedback loops is needed to conserve ecosystems that face major disruptions in response to climate and land-use change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J Russo
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Andrew B Davies
- Department of Organismic & Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Rachel V Blakey
- La Kretz Center for California Conservation Science, Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Biological Sciences Department, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, California, USA
| | - Elsa M Ordway
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
- La Kretz Center for California Conservation Science, Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Thomas B Smith
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
- La Kretz Center for California Conservation Science, Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
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11
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Li K, Niu C, Wu C, Yu Y, Ma Y. Development of a 2 μm Solid-State Laser for Lidar in the Past Decade. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:7024. [PMID: 37631561 PMCID: PMC10458207 DOI: 10.3390/s23167024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Revised: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 08/04/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
The 2 μm wavelength belongs to the eye-safe band and has a wide range of applications in the fields of lidar, biomedicine, and materials processing. With the rapid development of military, wind power, sensing, and other industries, new requirements for 2 μm solid-state laser light sources have emerged, especially in the field of lidar. This paper focuses on the research progress of 2 μm solid-state lasers for lidar over the past decade. The technology and performance of 2 μm pulsed single longitudinal mode solid-state lasers, 2 μm seed solid-state lasers, and 2 μm high power solid-state lasers are, respectively, summarized and analyzed. This paper also introduces the properties of gain media commonly used in the 2 μm band, the construction method of new bonded crystals, and the fabrication method of saturable absorbers. Finally, the future prospects of 2 μm solid-state lasers for lidar are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Chunting Wu
- Jilin Key Laboratory of Solid-State Laser Technology and Application, Changchun University of Science and Technology, Changchun 130022, China; (K.L.); (C.N.); (Y.Y.); (Y.M.)
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12
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Shi J, Tang Y, Gao J, Piao C, Wang Z. Multitarget-Tracking Method Based on the Fusion of Millimeter-Wave Radar and LiDAR Sensor Information for Autonomous Vehicles. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:6920. [PMID: 37571706 PMCID: PMC10422552 DOI: 10.3390/s23156920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2023] [Revised: 07/29/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023]
Abstract
Multitarget tracking based on multisensor fusion perception is one of the key technologies to realize the intelligent driving of automobiles and has become a research hotspot in the field of intelligent driving. However, most current autonomous-vehicle target-tracking methods based on the fusion of millimeter-wave radar and lidar information struggle to guarantee accuracy and reliability in the measured data, and cannot effectively solve the multitarget-tracking problem in complex scenes. In view of this, based on the distributed multisensor multitarget tracking (DMMT) system, this paper proposes a multitarget-tracking method for autonomous vehicles that comprehensively considers key technologies such as target tracking, sensor registration, track association, and data fusion based on millimeter-wave radar and lidar. First, a single-sensor multitarget-tracking method suitable for millimeter-wave radar and lidar is proposed to form the respective target tracks; second, the Kalman filter temporal registration method and the residual bias estimation spatial registration method are used to realize the temporal and spatial registration of millimeter-wave radar and lidar data; third, use the sequential m-best method based on the new target density to find the track the correlation of different sensors; and finally, the IF heterogeneous sensor fusion algorithm is used to optimally combine the track information provided by millimeter-wave radar and lidar, and finally form a stable and high-precision global track. In order to verify the proposed method, a multitarget-tracking simulation verification in a high-speed scene is carried out. The results show that the multitarget-tracking method proposed in this paper can realize the track tracking of multiple target vehicles in high-speed driving scenarios. Compared with a single-radar tracker, the position, velocity, size, and direction estimation errors of the track fusion tracker are reduced by 85.5%, 64.6%, 75.3%, and 9.5% respectively, and the average value of GOSPA indicators is reduced by 19.8%; more accurate target state information can be obtained than a single-radar tracker.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junren Shi
- School of Automation, Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Chongqing 400065, China; (Y.T.); (C.P.); (Z.W.)
| | - Yingjie Tang
- School of Automation, Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Chongqing 400065, China; (Y.T.); (C.P.); (Z.W.)
| | - Jun Gao
- School of Computer Science and Technology, Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Chongqing 400065, China;
| | - Changhao Piao
- School of Automation, Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Chongqing 400065, China; (Y.T.); (C.P.); (Z.W.)
- School of Computer Science and Technology, Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Chongqing 400065, China;
| | - Zhongquan Wang
- School of Automation, Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Chongqing 400065, China; (Y.T.); (C.P.); (Z.W.)
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13
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Chavez S, Wdowinski S, Lagomasino D, Castañeda-Moya E, Fatoyinbo T, Moyer RP, Smoak JM. Estimating Structural Damage to Mangrove Forests Using Airborne Lidar Imagery: Case Study of Damage Induced by the 2017 Hurricane Irma to Mangroves in the Florida Everglades, USA. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:6669. [PMID: 37571453 PMCID: PMC10422621 DOI: 10.3390/s23156669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 06/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023]
Abstract
In September 2017, Hurricane Irma made landfall in South Florida, causing a great deal of damage to mangrove forests along the southwest coast. A combination of hurricane strength winds and high storm surge across the area resulted in canopy defoliation, broken branches, and downed trees. Evaluating changes in mangrove forest structure is significant, as a loss or change in mangrove forest structure can lead to loss in the ecosystems services that they provide. In this study, we used lidar remote sensing technology and field data to assess damage to the South Florida mangrove forests from Hurricane Irma. Lidar data provided an opportunity to investigate changes in mangrove forests using 3D high-resolution data to assess hurricane-induced changes at different tree structure levels. Using lidar data in conjunction with field observations, we were able to model aboveground necromass (AGN; standing dead trees) on a regional scale across the Shark River and Harney River within Everglades National Park. AGN estimates were higher in the mouth and downstream section of Shark River and higher in the downstream section of the Harney River, with higher impact observed in Shark River. Mean AGN estimates were 46 Mg/ha in Shark River and 38 Mg/ha in Harney River and an average loss of 29% in biomass, showing a significant damage when compared to other areas impacted by Hurricane Irma and previous disturbances in our study region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selena Chavez
- Institute of Environment, Department of Earth and Environment Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, USA;
| | - Shimon Wdowinski
- Institute of Environment, Department of Earth and Environment Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, USA;
| | - David Lagomasino
- Integrated Coastal Programs, East Carolina University, Wanchese, NC 27981, USA;
| | - Edward Castañeda-Moya
- Institute of Environment, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, USA;
| | - Temilola Fatoyinbo
- Biospheric Sciences Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA;
| | | | - Joseph M. Smoak
- School of Geosciences, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, FL 33701, USA
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14
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Tolley SA, Carpenter N, Crawford MM, Delp EJ, Habib A, Tuinstra MR. Row selection in remote sensing from four-row plots of maize and sorghum based on repeatability and predictive modeling. Front Plant Sci 2023; 14:1202536. [PMID: 37409309 PMCID: PMC10318590 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1202536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
Remote sensing enables the rapid assessment of many traits that provide valuable information to plant breeders throughout the growing season to improve genetic gain. These traits are often extracted from remote sensing data on a row segment (rows within a plot) basis enabling the quantitative assessment of any row-wise subset of plants in a plot, rather than a few individual representative plants, as is commonly done in field-based phenotyping. Nevertheless, which rows to include in analysis is still a matter of debate. The objective of this experiment was to evaluate row selection and plot trimming in field trials conducted using four-row plots with remote sensing traits extracted from RGB (red-green-blue), LiDAR (light detection and ranging), and VNIR (visible near infrared) hyperspectral data. Uncrewed aerial vehicle flights were conducted throughout the growing seasons of 2018 to 2021 with data collected on three years of a sorghum experiment and two years of a maize experiment. Traits were extracted from each plot based on all four row segments (RS) (RS1234), inner rows (RS23), outer rows (RS14), and individual rows (RS1, RS2, RS3, and RS4). Plot end trimming of 40 cm was an additional factor tested. Repeatability and predictive modeling of end-season yield were used to evaluate performance of these methodologies. Plot trimming was never shown to result in significantly different outcomes from non-trimmed plots. Significant differences were often observed based on differences in row selection. Plots with more row segments were often favorable for increasing repeatability, and excluding outer rows improved predictive modeling. These results support long-standing principles of experimental design in agronomy and should be considered in breeding programs that incorporate remote sensing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seth A. Tolley
- Department of Agronomy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Neal Carpenter
- Analytics and Pipeline Design, Bayer Crop Science, Chesterfield, MO, United States
| | - Melba M. Crawford
- Department of Agronomy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Edward J. Delp
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Ayman Habib
- Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
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15
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Gallerani EM, Burgett J, Vaughn N, Fortini LB, Fricker GA, Mounce H, Gillespie TW, Crampton L, Knapp D, Hite JM, Gilb R. High resolution lidar data shed light on inter-island translocation of endangered bird species in the Hawaiian Islands. Ecol Appl 2023:e2889. [PMID: 37212375 DOI: 10.1002/eap.2889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Translocation, often a management solution reserved for at-risk species, is a highly time sensitive intervention in the face of a rapidly changing climate. The definition of abiotic and biotic habitat requirements is essential to the selection of appropriate release sites in novel environments. However, field-based approaches to gathering this information are often too time intensive, especially in areas of complex topography where common, coarse-scale climate models lack essential details. We apply a fine-scale remote sensing-based approach to study the 'akikiki (Oreomystis bairdi) and 'akeke'e (Loxops caeruleirostris), Hawaiian honeycreepers endemic to Kaua'i that are experiencing large-scale population declines due to warming-induced spread of invasive disease. We use habitat suitability modeling based on fine-scale lidar-derived habitat structure metrics to refine coarse climate ranges for these species in candidate translocation areas on Maui. We found that canopy density was consistently the most important variable in defining habitat suitability for the two Kaua'i species. Our models also corroborated known habitat preferences and behavioral information for these species that are essential for informing translocation. We estimated a nesting habitat that will persist under future climate conditions on east Maui of 23.43 km2 for 'akikiki, compared to the current Kaua'i range of 13.09 km2 . In contrast, the novel nesting range for 'akeke'e in east Maui was smaller than its current range on Kaua'i (26.29 km2 versus 38.48 km2 , respectively). We were also able to assess detailed novel competitive interactions at a fine scale using models of three endemic Maui species of conservation concern: 'ākohekohe (Palmeria dolei), Maui 'alauahio (Paroreomyza montana), and kiwikiu (Pseudonestor xanthophrys). Weighted overlap areas between the species from both islands were moderate (<12 km2 ) and correlations between Maui and Kaua'i bird habitat were generally low, indicating limited potential for competition. Results indicate that translocation to east Maui could be a viable option for 'akikiki but would be more uncertain for 'akeke'e. Our novel multi-faceted approach allows for the timely analysis of both climate and vegetation structure at informative scales for the effective selection of appropriate translocation sites for at-risk species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica M Gallerani
- Department of Geography, University of California Los Angeles, 1255 Bunche Hall, Box 951524, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Jeff Burgett
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Science Applications, 300 Ala Moana Blvd, Honolulu, HI
| | - Nicholas Vaughn
- Center for Global Discovery and Conservation Science, Arizona State University 1001 South McAllister Avenue, Tempe, AZ
| | - Lucas Berio Fortini
- U.S. Geological Survey, Pacific Island Ecosystems Research Center Honolulu, HI
| | - Geoffrey Andrew Fricker
- Social Sciences Department, California Polytechnic University, San Luis Obispo, Building 47-13, San Luis Obispo, CA
| | - Hanna Mounce
- Maui Forest Bird Recovery Project, Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, UH Manoa, 2465 Olinda Rd, Makawao, HI
| | - Thomas W Gillespie
- Department of Geography, University of California Los Angeles, 1255 Bunche Hall, Box 951524, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Lisa Crampton
- Kauai Forest Bird Recovery Project, Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, UH Manoa, PO Box 27, Hanapepe, HI, USA
| | - David Knapp
- Center for Global Discovery and Conservation Science, Arizona State University 1001 South McAllister Avenue, Tempe, AZ
| | - Justin M Hite
- Kauai Forest Bird Recovery Project, Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, UH Manoa, PO Box 27, Hanapepe, HI, USA
| | - Roy Gilb
- Kauai Forest Bird Recovery Project, Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, UH Manoa, PO Box 27, Hanapepe, HI, USA
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16
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Peng G, Zhou Y, Hu L, Xiao L, Sun Z, Wu Z, Zhu X. VILO SLAM: Tightly Coupled Binocular Vision-Inertia SLAM Combined with LiDAR. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:4588. [PMID: 37430501 DOI: 10.3390/s23104588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2023] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 07/12/2023]
Abstract
For the existing visual-inertial SLAM algorithm, when the robot is moving at a constant speed or purely rotating and encounters scenes with insufficient visual features, problems of low accuracy and poor robustness arise. Aiming to solve the problems of low accuracy and robustness of the visual inertial SLAM algorithm, a tightly coupled vision-IMU-2D lidar odometry (VILO) algorithm is proposed. Firstly, low-cost 2D lidar observations and visual-inertial observations are fused in a tightly coupled manner. Secondly, the low-cost 2D lidar odometry model is used to derive the Jacobian matrix of the lidar residual with respect to the state variable to be estimated, and the residual constraint equation of the vision-IMU-2D lidar is constructed. Thirdly, the nonlinear solution method is used to obtain the optimal robot pose, which solves the problem of how to fuse 2D lidar observations with visual-inertial information in a tightly coupled manner. The results show that the algorithm still has reliable pose-estimation accuracy and robustness in many special environments, and the position error and yaw angle error are greatly reduced. Our research improves the accuracy and robustness of the multi-sensor fusion SLAM algorithm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Peng
- School of Artificial Intelligence and Automation, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
- Key Laboratory of Image Processing and Intelligent Control, Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Yicheng Zhou
- School of Artificial Intelligence and Automation, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
- Key Laboratory of Image Processing and Intelligent Control, Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Lu Hu
- School of Artificial Intelligence and Automation, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
- Key Laboratory of Image Processing and Intelligent Control, Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Li Xiao
- School of Artificial Intelligence and Automation, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
- Key Laboratory of Image Processing and Intelligent Control, Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Zhigang Sun
- School of Artificial Intelligence and Automation, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
- Key Laboratory of Image Processing and Intelligent Control, Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Zhangang Wu
- Shantui Construction Machinery Co., Ltd., Jining 272073, China
| | - Xukang Zhu
- Shantui Construction Machinery Co., Ltd., Jining 272073, China
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17
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Müller L, Li M, Månefjord H, Salvador J, Reistad N, Hernandez J, Kirkeby C, Runemark A, Brydegaard M. Remote Nanoscopy with Infrared Elastic Hyperspectral Lidar. Adv Sci (Weinh) 2023; 10:e2207110. [PMID: 36965063 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202207110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Revised: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Monitoring insects of different species to understand the factors affecting their diversity and decline is a major challenge. Laser remote sensing and spectroscopy offer promising novel solutions to this. Coherent scattering from thin wing membranes also known as wing interference patterns (WIPs) have recently been demonstrated to be species specific. The colors of WIPs arise due to unique fringy spectra, which can be retrieved over long distances. To demonstrate this, a new concept of infrared (950-1650 nm) hyperspectral lidar with 64 spectral bands based on a supercontinuum light source using ray-tracing and 3D printing is developed. A lidar with an unprecedented number of spectral channels, high signal-to-noise ratio, and spatio-temporal resolution enabling detection of free-flying insects and their wingbeats. As proof of principle, coherent scatter from a damselfly wing at 87 m distance without averaging (4 ms recording) is retrieved. The fringed signal properties are used to determine an effective wing membrane thickness of 1412 nm with ±4 nm precision matching laboratory recordings of the same wing. Similar signals from free flying insects (2 ms recording) are later recorded. The accuracy and the method's potential are discussed to discriminate species by capturing coherent features from free-flying insects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauro Müller
- Department of Physics, Lund University, Sölvegatan 14c, Lund, 22363, Sweden
| | - Meng Li
- Department of Physics, Lund University, Sölvegatan 14c, Lund, 22363, Sweden
| | - Hampus Månefjord
- Department of Physics, Lund University, Sölvegatan 14c, Lund, 22363, Sweden
| | - Jacobo Salvador
- Department of Physics, Lund University, Sölvegatan 14c, Lund, 22363, Sweden
| | - Nina Reistad
- Department of Physics, Lund University, Sölvegatan 14c, Lund, 22363, Sweden
- Centre for Environmental and Climate Science, Lund University, Sölvegatan 37, Lund, SE-223 62, Sweden
| | - Julio Hernandez
- Norsk Elektro Optikk A/S, Østensjøveien 34, Oslo, 0667, Norway
| | - Carsten Kirkeby
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Copenhagen University, Frederiksberg, 1870, Denmark
- FaunaPhotonics, Støberigade 14, Copenhagen, 2450, Denmark
| | - Anna Runemark
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Sölvegatan 35, Lund, 22362, Sweden
| | - Mikkel Brydegaard
- Department of Physics, Lund University, Sölvegatan 14c, Lund, 22363, Sweden
- Norsk Elektro Optikk A/S, Østensjøveien 34, Oslo, 0667, Norway
- FaunaPhotonics, Støberigade 14, Copenhagen, 2450, Denmark
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Sölvegatan 35, Lund, 22362, Sweden
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18
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Li J, Bi Y, Li K, Wu L, Cao J, Hao Q. Improving the Accuracy of TOF LiDAR Based on Balanced Detection Method. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:4020. [PMID: 37112360 PMCID: PMC10146009 DOI: 10.3390/s23084020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Revised: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
The ranging accuracy of pulsed time-of-flight (TOF) lidar is affected by walk error and jitter error. To solve the issue, the balanced detection method (BDM) based on fiber delay optic lines (FDOL) is proposed. The experiments are carried out to prove the performance improvement of BDM over the conventional single photodiode method (SPM). The experimental results show that BDM can suppress common mode noise and simultaneously shift the signal to high frequency, which reduces the jitter error by approximately 52.4% and maintains the walk error at less than 300 ps with a non-distorted waveform. The BDM can be further applied to silicon photomultipliers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingjing Li
- School of Optics and Photonics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Ying Bi
- Beijing Institute of Aerospace Systems Engineering, Beijing 100076, China
| | - Kun Li
- School of Optics and Photonics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Lingyi Wu
- School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Jie Cao
- School of Optics and Photonics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
- Yangtze Delta Region Academy, Beijing Institute of Technology, Jiaxing 314003, China
| | - Qun Hao
- School of Optics and Photonics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
- Yangtze Delta Region Academy, Beijing Institute of Technology, Jiaxing 314003, China
- School of Opto-Electronic Engineering, Changchun University of Science and Technology, Changchun 130013, China
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19
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Yin S, Xie D, Fu Y, Wang Z, Zhong R. Uncontrolled Two-Step Iterative Calibration Algorithm for Lidar-IMU System. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:3119. [PMID: 36991832 PMCID: PMC10058423 DOI: 10.3390/s23063119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Revised: 03/05/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Calibration of sensors is critical for the precise functioning of lidar-IMU systems. However, the accuracy of the system can be compromised if motion distortion is not considered. This study proposes a novel uncontrolled two-step iterative calibration algorithm that eliminates motion distortion and improves the accuracy of lidar-IMU systems. Initially, the algorithm corrects the distortion of rotational motion by matching the original inter-frame point cloud. Then, the point cloud is further matched with IMU after the prediction of attitude. The algorithm performs iterative motion distortion correction and rotation matrix calculation to obtain high-precision calibration results. In comparison with existing algorithms, the proposed algorithm boasts high accuracy, robustness, and efficiency. This high-precision calibration result can benefit a wide range of acquisition platforms, including handheld, unmanned ground vehicle (UGV), and backpack lidar-IMU systems.
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20
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Yu X, Salimpour S, Queralta JP, Westerlund T. General-Purpose Deep Learning Detection and Segmentation Models for Images from a Lidar-Based Camera Sensor. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:2936. [PMID: 36991648 PMCID: PMC10058223 DOI: 10.3390/s23062936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Revised: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Over the last decade, robotic perception algorithms have significantly benefited from the rapid advances in deep learning (DL). Indeed, a significant amount of the autonomy stack of different commercial and research platforms relies on DL for situational awareness, especially vision sensors. This work explored the potential of general-purpose DL perception algorithms, specifically detection and segmentation neural networks, for processing image-like outputs of advanced lidar sensors. Rather than processing the three-dimensional point cloud data, this is, to the best of our knowledge, the first work to focus on low-resolution images with a 360° field of view obtained with lidar sensors by encoding either depth, reflectivity, or near-infrared light in the image pixels. We showed that with adequate preprocessing, general-purpose DL models can process these images, opening the door to their usage in environmental conditions where vision sensors present inherent limitations. We provided both a qualitative and quantitative analysis of the performance of a variety of neural network architectures. We believe that using DL models built for visual cameras offers significant advantages due to their much wider availability and maturity compared to point cloud-based perception.
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21
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Frosi M, Bertoglio R, Matteucci M. On the precision of 6 DoF IMU- LiDAR based localization in GNSS-denied scenarios. Front Robot AI 2023; 10:1064930. [PMID: 36761489 PMCID: PMC9902871 DOI: 10.3389/frobt.2023.1064930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Positioning and navigation represent relevant topics in the field of robotics, due to their multiple applications in real-world scenarios, ranging from autonomous driving to harsh environment exploration. Despite localization in outdoor environments is generally achieved using a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receiver, global navigation satellite system-denied environments are typical of many situations, especially in indoor settings. Autonomous robots are commonly equipped with multiple sensors, including laser rangefinders, IMUs, and odometers, which can be used for mapping and localization, overcoming the need for global navigation satellite system data. In literature, almost no information can be found on the positioning accuracy and precision of 6 Degrees of Freedom Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) localization systems, especially for real-world scenarios. In this paper, we present a short review of state-of-the-art light detection and ranging localization methods in global navigation satellite system-denied environments, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages. Then, we evaluate two state-of-the-art Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) systems able to also perform localization, one of which implemented by us. We benchmark these two algorithms on manually collected dataset, with the goal of providing an insight into their attainable precision in real-world scenarios. In particular, we present two experimental campaigns, one indoor and one outdoor, to measure the precision of these algorithms. After creating a map for each of the two environments, using the simultaneous localization and mapping part of the systems, we compute a custom localization error for multiple, different trajectories. Results show that the two algorithms are comparable in terms of precision, having a similar mean translation and rotation errors of about 0.01 m and 0.6°, respectively. Nevertheless, the system implemented by us has the advantage of being modular, customizable and able to achieve real-time performance.
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22
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Kuang Z, Liu D, Wu D, Wang Z, Li C, Deng Q. Parameter Optimization and Development of Mini Infrared Lidar for Atmospheric Three-Dimensional Detection. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:892. [PMID: 36679687 PMCID: PMC9864351 DOI: 10.3390/s23020892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Revised: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 01/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
In order to conduct more thorough research on the structural characteristics of the atmosphere and the distribution and transmission of atmospheric pollution, the use of remote sensing technology for multi-dimensional detection of the atmosphere is needed. A light-weight, low-volume, low-cost, easy-to-use and low-maintenance mini Infrared Lidar (mIRLidar) sensor is developed for the first time. The model of lidar is established, and the key optical parameters of the mIRLidar are optimized through simulation, in which wavelength of laser, energy of pulse laser, diameter of telescope, field of view (FOV), and bandwidth of filter are included. The volume and weight of the lidar system are effectively reduced through optimizing the structural design and designing a temperature control system to ensure the stable operation of the core components. The mIRLidar system involved a 1064 nm laser (the pulse laser energy 15 μJ, the repetition frequency 5 kHz), a 100 mm aperture telescope (the FOV 1.5 mrad), a 0.5 nm bandwidth of filter and an APD, where the lidar has a volume of 200 mm × 200 mm × 420 mm and weighs about 13.5 kg. It is shown that the lidar can effectively detect three-dimensional distribution and transmission of aerosol and atmospheric pollution within a 5 km detection range, from Horizontal, scanning and navigational atmospheric measurements. It has great potential in the field of meteorological research and environmental monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiqiang Kuang
- Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
- Science Island Branch of Graduate School, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
| | - Dong Liu
- Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
- Science Island Branch of Graduate School, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
- Advanced Laser Technology Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei 230037, China
| | - Decheng Wu
- Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
- Science Island Branch of Graduate School, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
- Advanced Laser Technology Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei 230037, China
| | - Zhenzhu Wang
- Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
- Science Island Branch of Graduate School, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
- Advanced Laser Technology Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei 230037, China
| | - Cheng Li
- Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
- Science Island Branch of Graduate School, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
| | - Qian Deng
- Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
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Trybała P, Szrek J, Dębogórski B, Ziętek B, Blachowski J, Wodecki J, Zimroz R. Analysis of Lidar Actuator System Influence on the Quality of Dense 3D Point Cloud Obtained with SLAM. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:721. [PMID: 36679518 PMCID: PMC9865594 DOI: 10.3390/s23020721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 01/02/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Mobile mapping technologies, based on techniques such as simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) and surface-from-motion (SfM), are being vigorously developed both in the scientific community and in industry. They are crucial concepts for automated 3D surveying and autonomous vehicles. For various applications, rotating multiline scanners, manufactured, for example, by Velodyne and Ouster, are utilized as the main sensor of the mapping hardware system. However, their principle of operation has a substantial drawback, as their scanning pattern creates natural gaps between the scanning lines. In some models, the vertical lidar field of view can also be severely limited. To overcome these issues, more sensors could be employed, which would significantly increase the cost of the mapping system. Instead, some investigators have added a tilting or rotating motor to the lidar. Although the effectiveness of such a solution is usually clearly visible, its impact on the quality of the acquired 3D data has not yet been investigated. This paper presents an adjustable mapping system, which allows for switching between a stable, tilting or fully rotating lidar position. A simple experiment in a building corridor was performed, simulating the conditions of a mobile robot passing through a narrow tunnel: a common setting for applications, such as mining surveying or industrial facility inspection. A SLAM algorithm is utilized to create a coherent 3D point cloud of the mapped corridor for three settings of the sensor movement. The extent of improvement in the 3D data quality when using the tilting and rotating lidar, compared to keeping a stable position, is quantified. Different metrics are proposed to account for different aspects of the 3D data quality, such as completeness, density and geometry coherence. The ability of SLAM algorithms to faithfully represent selected objects appearing in the mapped scene is also examined. The results show that the fully rotating solution is optimal in terms of most of the metrics analyzed. However, the improvement observed from a horizontally mounted sensor to a tilting sensor was the most significant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paweł Trybała
- Faculty of Geoengineering, Mining and Geology, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Na Grobli 15, 50-421 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Jarosław Szrek
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Łukasiewicza 5, 50-371 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Błażej Dębogórski
- Faculty of Geoengineering, Mining and Geology, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Na Grobli 15, 50-421 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Bartłomiej Ziętek
- Faculty of Geoengineering, Mining and Geology, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Na Grobli 15, 50-421 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Jan Blachowski
- Faculty of Geoengineering, Mining and Geology, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Na Grobli 15, 50-421 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Jacek Wodecki
- Faculty of Geoengineering, Mining and Geology, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Na Grobli 15, 50-421 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Radosław Zimroz
- Faculty of Geoengineering, Mining and Geology, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Na Grobli 15, 50-421 Wroclaw, Poland
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24
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Ferrara C, Puletti N, Guasti M, Scotti R. Mapping Understory Vegetation Density in Mediterranean Forests: Insights from Airborne and Terrestrial Laser Scanning Integration. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:511. [PMID: 36617109 PMCID: PMC9824637 DOI: 10.3390/s23010511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2022] [Revised: 12/27/2022] [Accepted: 12/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The understory is an essential ecological and structural component of forest ecosystems. The lack of efficient, accurate, and objective methods for evaluating and quantifying the spatial spread of understory characteristics over large areas is a challenge for forest planning and management, with specific regard to biodiversity and habitat governance. In this study, we used terrestrial and airborne laser scanning (TLS and ALS) data to characterize understory in a European beech and black pine forest in Italy. First, we linked understory structural features derived from traditional field measurements with TLS metrics, then, we related such metrics to the ones derived from ALS. Results indicate that (i) the upper understory density (5-10 m above ground) is significantly associated with two ALS metrics, specifically the mean height of points belonging to the lower third of the ALS point cloud within the voxel (HM1/3) and the corresponding standard deviation (SD1/3), while (ii) for the lower understory layer (2-5 m above ground), the most related metric is HM1/3 alone. As an example application, we have produced a map of forest understory for each layer, extending over the entire study region covered by ALS data, based on the developed spatial prediction models. With this study, we also demonstrated the power of hand-held mobile-TLS as a fast and high-resolution tool for measuring forest structural attributes and obtaining relevant ecological data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlotta Ferrara
- CREA, Research Centre for Forestry and Wood, Via Valle della Quistione, IT-00166 Rome, Italy
| | - Nicola Puletti
- CREA, Research Centre for Forestry and Wood, Viale Santa Margherita 80, IT-52100 Arezzo, Italy
| | - Matteo Guasti
- CREA, Research Centre for Forestry and Wood, Viale Santa Margherita 80, IT-52100 Arezzo, Italy
| | - Roberto Scotti
- UNISS, Department of agriculture, NuoroForestrySchool, Via C. Colombo 1, IT-08100 Nuoro, Italy
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25
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Li Z, Xie D, Liu L, Wang H, Chen L. Inter-row information recognition of maize in the middle and late stages via LiDAR supplementary vision. Front Plant Sci 2022; 13:1024360. [PMID: 36874920 PMCID: PMC9983608 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.1024360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
In the middle and late stages of maize, light is limited and non-maize obstacles exist. When a plant protection robot uses the traditional visual navigation method to obtain navigation information, some information will be missing. Therefore, this paper proposed a method using LiDAR (laser imaging, detection and ranging) point cloud data to supplement machine vision data for recognizing inter-row information in the middle and late stages of maize. Firstly, we improved the YOLOv5 (You Only Look Once, version 5) algorithm based on the characteristics of the actual maize inter-row environment in the middle and late stages by introducing MobileNetv2 and ECANet. Compared with that of YOLOv5, the frame rate of the improved YOLOv5 (Im-YOLOv5) increased by 17.91% and the weight size decreased by 55.56% when the average accuracy was reduced by only 0.35%, improving the detection performance and shortening the time of model reasoning. Secondly, we identified obstacles (such as stones and clods) between the rows using the LiDAR point cloud data to obtain auxiliary navigation information. Thirdly, the auxiliary navigation information was used to supplement the visual information, so that not only the recognition accuracy of the inter-row navigation information in the middle and late stages of maize was improved but also the basis of the stable and efficient operation of the inter-row plant protection robot was provided for these stages. The experimental results from a data acquisition robot equipped with a camera and a LiDAR sensor are presented to show the efficacy and remarkable performance of the proposed method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiqiang Li
- College of Engineering, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
- Anhui Intelligent Agricultural Machinery Equipment Engineering Laboratory, Hefei, China
| | - Dongbo Xie
- College of Engineering, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
- Anhui Intelligent Agricultural Machinery Equipment Engineering Laboratory, Hefei, China
| | - Lichao Liu
- College of Engineering, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
- Anhui Intelligent Agricultural Machinery Equipment Engineering Laboratory, Hefei, China
| | - Hai Wang
- College of Engineering, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
- Discipline of Engineering and Energy, Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Liqing Chen
- College of Engineering, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
- Anhui Intelligent Agricultural Machinery Equipment Engineering Laboratory, Hefei, China
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26
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Kang E, Choi H, Hellman B, Rodriguez J, Smith B, Deng X, Liu P, Lee TLT, Evans E, Hong Y, Guan J, Luo C, Takashima Y. All-MEMS Lidar Using Hybrid Optical Architecture with Digital Micromirror Devices and a 2D-MEMS Mirror. Micromachines (Basel) 2022; 13:1444. [PMID: 36144069 PMCID: PMC9505156 DOI: 10.3390/mi13091444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2022] [Revised: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
In a lidar system, replacing moving components with solid-state devices is highly anticipated to make a reliable and compact lidar system, provided that a substantially large beam area with a large angular extent as well as high angular resolution is assured for the lidar transmitter and receiver. A new quasi-solid-state lidar optical architecture employs a transmitter with a two-dimensional MEMS mirror for fine beam steering at a fraction of the degree of the angular resolution and is combined with a digital micromirror device for wide FOV scanning over 37 degree while sustaining a large aperture area of 140 mm squared. In the receiver, a second digital micromirror device is synchronized to the transmitter DMD, which enables a large FOV receiver. An angular resolution of 0.57°(H) by 0.23° (V) was achieved with 0.588 fps for scanning 1344 points within the field of view.
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27
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Duszak P. SLAM on the Hexagonal Grid. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:6221. [PMID: 36015980 PMCID: PMC9415786 DOI: 10.3390/s22166221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Hexagonal grids have many advantages over square grids and could be successfully used in mobile robotics as a map representation. However, there is a lack of an essential algorithm, namely, SLAM (simultaneous localization and mapping), that would generate a map directly on the hexagonal grid. In this paper, this issue is addressed. The solution is based on scan matching and solving the least-square problem with the Gauss-Newton formula, but it is modified with the Lagrange multiplier theorem. This is necessary to fulfill the constraints given by the manifold. The algorithm was tested in the synthetic environment and on a real robot and is entirely fully suitable for the presented task. It generates a very accurate map and generally has even better precision than the similar approach implemented on the square lattice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piotr Duszak
- Institute of Automatic Control and Robotics, Warsaw University of Technology, 02-525 Warsaw, Poland
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28
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Wang Z, Ding H, Wang B, Liu D. New Denoising Method for Lidar Signal by the WT-VMD Joint Algorithm. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:5978. [PMID: 36015745 PMCID: PMC9412674 DOI: 10.3390/s22165978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2022] [Revised: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Light detection and ranging (LIDAR) is an active remote sensing system. Lidar echo signal is non-linear and non-stationary, which is often accompanied by various noises. In order to filter out the noise and extract valid signal information, a suitable method should be chosen for noise reduction. Some denoising methods are commonly used, such as the wavelet transform (WT), the empirical mode decomposition (EMD), the variational mode decomposition (VMD), and their improved algorithms. In this paper, a new denoising method named the WT-VMD joint algorithm based on the sparrow search algorithm (SSA), for lidar signal is selected by comparative experiment analysis. It is shown that this method is the most suitable one with the maximum signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), the minimum root-mean-square error (RMSE), and a relatively small indicator of smoothness when it is used in three kinds (50, 100, and 1000 pulses) of simulate lidar signals. The SNR is increased by 138.5%, 77.8% and 42.8% and the RMSE is decreased by 81.8%, 72.0% and 68.8% when being used to the three kinds of cumulative signal without pollution. Then, the SNR is increased by 83.3%, 60.4% and 24.0% and the RMSE is decreased by 70.8%, 66.0% and 50.5% when being used to the three kinds of cumulative signal with aerosol and clouds. The WT-VMD joint algorithm based on SSA is used in the denoising process for the actual lidar signal, showing extraordinary denoising effect and will improve the inversion accuracy of the lidar signal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenzhu Wang
- Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
- Science Island Branch of Graduate School, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
- Advanced Laser Technology Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei 230037, China
| | - Hongbo Ding
- Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
- Science Island Branch of Graduate School, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
| | - Bangxin Wang
- Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
- Science Island Branch of Graduate School, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
- Advanced Laser Technology Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei 230037, China
| | - Dong Liu
- Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
- Science Island Branch of Graduate School, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
- Advanced Laser Technology Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei 230037, China
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29
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Lopac N, Jurdana I, Brnelić A, Krljan T. Application of Laser Systems for Detection and Ranging in the Modern Road Transportation and Maritime Sector. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:5946. [PMID: 36015703 PMCID: PMC9415075 DOI: 10.3390/s22165946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Revised: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The development of light detection and ranging (lidar) technology began in the 1960s, following the invention of the laser, which represents the central component of this system, integrating laser scanning with an inertial measurement unit (IMU) and Global Positioning System (GPS). Lidar technology is spreading to many different areas of application, from those in autonomous vehicles for road detection and object recognition, to those in the maritime sector, including object detection for autonomous navigation, monitoring ocean ecosystems, mapping coastal areas, and other diverse applications. This paper presents lidar system technology and reviews its application in the modern road transportation and maritime sector. Some of the better-known lidar systems for practical applications, on which current commercial models are based, are presented, and their advantages and disadvantages are described and analyzed. Moreover, current challenges and future trends of application are discussed. This paper also provides a systematic review of recent scientific research on the application of lidar system technology and the corresponding computational algorithms for data analysis, mainly focusing on deep learning algorithms, in the modern road transportation and maritime sector, based on an extensive analysis of the available scientific literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikola Lopac
- Faculty of Maritime Studies, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
- Center for Artificial Intelligence and Cybersecurity, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Irena Jurdana
- Faculty of Maritime Studies, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Adrian Brnelić
- Faculty of Maritime Studies, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Tomislav Krljan
- Faculty of Maritime Studies, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
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30
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Cremons DR, Honniball CI. Simulated Lunar Surface Hydration Measurements Using Multispectral Lidar at 3 µm. Earth Space Sci 2022; 9:e2022EA002277. [PMID: 36035964 PMCID: PMC9400864 DOI: 10.1029/2022ea002277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Revised: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Accurately measuring the variability of spectroscopic signatures of hydration (H2O + OH) on the illuminated lunar surface at 3 μm as a function of latitude, lunar time of day, and composition is crucial to determining the generation and destruction mechanisms of OH species and understanding the global water cycle. A prime complication in analysis of the spectroscopic feature is the accurate removal of thermal emission, which can modify or even eliminate the hydration feature depending on the data processing methods used and assumptions made. An orbital multispectral lidar, with laser illumination at key diagnostic wavelengths, would provide uniform, zero-phase geometry, complete latitude and time of day coverage from a circular polar orbit, and is agnostic to the thermal state of the surface. We have performed measurement simulations of a four-wavelength multispectral lidar using spectral mixtures of hydrated mid-ocean-ridge basalt (MORB) glasses and lunar regolith endmembers to assess the lidar performance in measuring hydration signatures on the lunar surface. Our results show a feasible system with wavelengths at 1.5 μm, 2.65 μm, 2.8 μm, and 3.1 μm can measure lunar hydration with a precision of 52 ppm (1σ) or better. These results, combined with the uniform measurement capabilities of multispectral lidar make it a valuable spectroscopic technique for elucidating mechanisms of OH/H2O generation, migration, and destruction.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - C. I. Honniball
- NASA Postdoctoral ProgramNASA Goddard Space Flight CenterGreenbeltMDUSA
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31
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Linnhoff C, Hofrichter K, Elster L, Rosenberger P, Winner H. Measuring the Influence of Environmental Conditions on Automotive Lidar Sensors. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:5266. [PMID: 35890948 PMCID: PMC9315550 DOI: 10.3390/s22145266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2022] [Revised: 07/03/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Safety validation of automated driving functions is a major challenge that is partly tackled by means of simulation-based testing. The virtual validation approach always entails the modeling of automotive perception sensors and their environment. In the real world, these sensors are exposed to adverse influences by environmental conditions such as rain, fog, snow, etc. Therefore, such influences need to be reflected in the simulation models. In this publication, a novel data set is introduced and analyzed. This data set contains lidar data with synchronized reference measurements of weather conditions from a stationary long-term experiment. Recorded weather conditions comprise fog, rain, snow, and direct sunlight. The data are analyzed by pairing lidar values, such as the number of detections in the atmosphere, with weather parameters such as rain rate in mm/h. This results in expectation values, which can directly be utilized for stochastic modeling or model calibration and validation. The results show vast differences in the number of atmospheric detections, range distribution, and attenuation between the different sensors of the data set.
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32
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Carrasco L, Giam X, Sheldon KS, Papeş M. The relative influence of history, climate, topography and vegetation structure on local animal richness varies among taxa and spatial grains. J Anim Ecol 2022; 91:1596-1611. [PMID: 35638320 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
1. Understanding the spatial scales at which environmental factors drive species richness patterns is a major challenge in ecology. Due to the trade-off between spatial grain and extent, studies tend to focus on a single spatial scale, and the effects of multiple environmental variables operating across spatial scales on the pattern of local species richness have rarely been investigated. 2. Here, we related variation in local species richness of ground beetles, landbirds, and small mammals to variation in vegetation structure and topography, regional climate, biome diversity, and glaciation history for 27 sites across the USA at two different spatial grains. 3. We studied the relative influence of broad-scale (landscape) environmental conditions using variables estimated at the site level (climate, productivity, biome diversity, and glacial era ice cover) and fine-scale (local) environmental conditions using variables estimated at the plot level (topography and vegetation structure) to explain local species richness. We also examined whether plot-level factors scale up to drive continental scale richness patterns. We used Bayesian hierarchical models and quantified the amount of variance in observed richness that was explained by environmental factors at different spatial scales. 4. For all three animal groups, our models explained much of the variation in local species richness (85-89%), but site-level variables explained a greater proportion of richness variance than plot-level variables. Temperature was the most important site-level predictor for explaining variance in landbirds and ground beetles richness. Some aspects of vegetation structure were the main plot-level predictors of landbird richness. Environmental predictors generally had poor explanatory power for small mammal richness, while glacial era ice cover was the most important site-level predictor. 5. Relationships between plot-level factors and richness varied greatly among geographical regions and spatial grains, and most relationships did not hold when predictors were scaled up to continental scale. Our results suggest that the factors that determine richness may be highly dependent on spatial grain, geography, and animal group. We demonstrate that instead of artificially manipulating the resolution to study multi-scale effects, a hierarchical approach that uses fine grain data at broad extents could help solve the issue of scale selection in environment-richness studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Carrasco
- National Institute for Mathematical and Biological Synthesis, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA.,Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA.,Descartes Labs, Inc., USA
| | - Xingli Giam
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
| | - Kimberly S Sheldon
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
| | - Monica Papeş
- National Institute for Mathematical and Biological Synthesis, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA.,Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
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33
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Liu F, He Y, Chen W, Luo Y, Yu J, Chen Y, Jiao C, Liu M. Simulation and Design of Circular Scanning Airborne Geiger Mode Lidar for High-Resolution Topographic Mapping. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:3656. [PMID: 35632065 DOI: 10.3390/s22103656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Revised: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Over the last two decades, Geiger-mode lidar (GML) systems have been developing rapidly in defense and commercial applications, demonstrating high point density and great collection efficiency. We presented a circular scanning GML system simulation model for performance prediction and developed a GML system for civilian mapping. The lidar system used an eye-safe fiber laser at 1545 nm coupled with a 64 × 64 pixels photon-counting detector array. A real-time data compression algorithm was implanted to reduce half of the data transmission rate and storage space compared to the uncompressing situation. The GML system can operate at aircraft above-ground levels (AGLs) between 0.35 km and 3 km, and at speeds in excess of 220 km/h. The initial flight tests indicate that the GML system can operate day and night with an area coverage of 366 km2/h. The standard deviations of the relative altimetric accuracy and the relative planimetric accuracy are 0.131 m and 0.152 m, respectively. The findings presented in this article guide the implementation of designing an airborne GML system and the data compression method.
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Warren E, Charlton-Perez C, Lean H, Kotthaus S, Grimmond S. Spatial variability of forward modelled attenuated backscatter in clear-sky conditions over a megacity: Implications for observation network design. Q J R Meteorol Soc 2022; 148:1168-1183. [PMID: 35915744 PMCID: PMC9313619 DOI: 10.1002/qj.4253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2021] [Revised: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Sensors that measure the attenuated backscatter coefficient (e.g., automatic lidars and ceilometers [ALCs]) provide information on aerosols that can impact urban climate and human health. To design an observational network of ALC sensors for supporting data assimilation and to improve prediction of urban weather and air quality, a methodology is needed. In this study, spatio-temporal patterns of aerosol-attenuated backscatter coefficient are modelled using Met Office numerical weather prediction (NWP) models at two resolutions, 1.5 km (UKV) and 300 m (London Model [LM]), for 28 clear-sky days and nights. Initially, attenuated backscatter coefficient data are analysed using S-mode principal component analysis (PCA) with varimax rotation. Four to seven empirical orthogonal functions (EOFs) are produced for each model level, with common EOFs found across different heights (day and night) for both NWP models. EOFs relate strongly to orography, wind, and emissions source location, highlighting these as critical controls of attenuated backscatter coefficient spatial variability across the megacity. Urban-rural differences are largest when wind speeds are low and vertical boundary-layer dynamics can more effectively distribute near-surface aerosol emissions vertically. In several night-time EOFs, gravity-wave features are found for both NWP models. Increasing the horizontal resolution of native ancillaries (model input parameters) and improving the urban surface scheme in the LM may enhance the urban signal in the EOFs. PCA output, with agglomerative Ward cluster analysis (CA), minimises intra-group variance. The UKV and LM CA shape and size results are similar and strongly related to orography. PCA-CA is a simple, but adaptable methodology, allowing close alignment with observation network design goals. Here, CA is used with wind roses to suggest the optimised ALC deployment is one in the city to observe the urban plume and others surrounding the city, with priority given to cluster size and frequency of upwind advection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elliott Warren
- Department of Meteorology University of Reading Reading UK
- Met Office Exeter UK
| | | | | | - Simone Kotthaus
- Institut Pierre Simon Laplace (IPSL), CNRS, École Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris Palaiseau Cedex France
| | - Sue Grimmond
- Department of Meteorology University of Reading Reading UK
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Wei Z, Zhang F, Chang S, Liu Y, Wu H, Feng Z. MmWave Radar and Vision Fusion for Object Detection in Autonomous Driving: A Review. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:s22072542. [PMID: 35408157 PMCID: PMC9003130 DOI: 10.3390/s22072542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Revised: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
With autonomous driving developing in a booming stage, accurate object detection in complex scenarios attract wide attention to ensure the safety of autonomous driving. Millimeter wave (mmWave) radar and vision fusion is a mainstream solution for accurate obstacle detection. This article presents a detailed survey on mmWave radar and vision fusion based obstacle detection methods. First, we introduce the tasks, evaluation criteria, and datasets of object detection for autonomous driving. The process of mmWave radar and vision fusion is then divided into three parts: sensor deployment, sensor calibration, and sensor fusion, which are reviewed comprehensively. Specifically, we classify the fusion methods into data level, decision level, and feature level fusion methods. In addition, we introduce three-dimensional(3D) object detection, the fusion of lidar and vision in autonomous driving and multimodal information fusion, which are promising for the future. Finally, we summarize this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiqing Wei
- Key Laboratory of Universal Wireless Communications, Ministry of Education, School of Information and Communication Engineering, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China; (F.Z.); (S.C.); (Y.L.); (Z.F.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-134-3913-4213
| | - Fengkai Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Universal Wireless Communications, Ministry of Education, School of Information and Communication Engineering, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China; (F.Z.); (S.C.); (Y.L.); (Z.F.)
| | - Shuo Chang
- Key Laboratory of Universal Wireless Communications, Ministry of Education, School of Information and Communication Engineering, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China; (F.Z.); (S.C.); (Y.L.); (Z.F.)
| | - Yangyang Liu
- Key Laboratory of Universal Wireless Communications, Ministry of Education, School of Information and Communication Engineering, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China; (F.Z.); (S.C.); (Y.L.); (Z.F.)
| | - Huici Wu
- National Engineering Lab for Mobile Network Technologies, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China;
| | - Zhiyong Feng
- Key Laboratory of Universal Wireless Communications, Ministry of Education, School of Information and Communication Engineering, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China; (F.Z.); (S.C.); (Y.L.); (Z.F.)
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36
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Francini S, D’Amico G, Vangi E, Borghi C, Chirici G. Integrating GEDI and Landsat: Spaceborne Lidar and Four Decades of Optical Imagery for the Analysis of Forest Disturbances and Biomass Changes in Italy. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:s22052015. [PMID: 35271161 PMCID: PMC8914649 DOI: 10.3390/s22052015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Revised: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Forests play a prominent role in the battle against climate change, as they absorb a relevant part of human carbon emissions. However, precisely because of climate change, forest disturbances are expected to increase and alter forests' capacity to absorb carbon. In this context, forest monitoring using all available sources of information is crucial. We combined optical (Landsat) and photonic (GEDI) data to monitor four decades (1985-2019) of disturbances in Italian forests (11 Mha). Landsat data were confirmed as a relevant source of information for forest disturbance mapping, as forest harvestings in Tuscany were predicted with omission errors estimated between 29% (in 2012) and 65% (in 2001). GEDI was assessed using Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS) data available for about 6 Mha of Italian forests. A good correlation (r2 = 0.75) between Above Ground Biomass Density GEDI estimates (AGBD) and canopy height ALS estimates was reported. GEDI data provided complementary information to Landsat. The Landsat mission is capable of mapping disturbances, but not retrieving the three-dimensional structure of forests, while our results indicate that GEDI is capable of capturing forest biomass changes due to disturbances. GEDI acquires useful information not only for biomass trend quantification in disturbance regimes but also for forest disturbance discrimination and characterization, which is crucial to further understanding the effect of climate change on forest ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saverio Francini
- Department of Agriculture, Food, Environment and Forestry, University of Florence, 50145 Florence, Italy; (S.F.); (E.V.); (C.B.); (G.C.)
| | - Giovanni D’Amico
- Department of Agriculture, Food, Environment and Forestry, University of Florence, 50145 Florence, Italy; (S.F.); (E.V.); (C.B.); (G.C.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Elia Vangi
- Department of Agriculture, Food, Environment and Forestry, University of Florence, 50145 Florence, Italy; (S.F.); (E.V.); (C.B.); (G.C.)
- Department of Bioscience and Territory, University of Molise, 86100 Campobasso, Italy
| | - Costanza Borghi
- Department of Agriculture, Food, Environment and Forestry, University of Florence, 50145 Florence, Italy; (S.F.); (E.V.); (C.B.); (G.C.)
| | - Gherardo Chirici
- Department of Agriculture, Food, Environment and Forestry, University of Florence, 50145 Florence, Italy; (S.F.); (E.V.); (C.B.); (G.C.)
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Jandreau J, Chu X. Comparison of Three Methodologies for Removal of Random-Noise-Induced Biases From Second-Order Statistical Parameters of Lidar and Radar Measurements. Earth Space Sci 2022; 9:e2021EA002073. [PMID: 35865261 PMCID: PMC9286857 DOI: 10.1029/2021ea002073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2021] [Revised: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 11/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Random-noise-induced biases are inherent issues to the accurate derivation of second-order statistical parameters (e.g., variances, fluxes, energy densities, and power spectra) from lidar and radar measurements. We demonstrate here for the first time an altitude-interleaved method for eliminating such biases, following the original proposals by Gardner and Chu (2020, https://doi.org/10.1364/ao.400375) who demonstrated a time-interleaved method. Interleaving in altitude bins provides two statistically independent samples over the same time period and nearly the same altitude range, thus enabling the replacement of variances that include the noise-induced biases with covariances that are intrinsically free of such biases. Comparing the interleaved method with previous variance subtraction (VS) and spectral proportion (SP) methods using gravity wave potential energy density calculated from Antarctic lidar data and from a forward model, this study finds the accuracy and precision of each method differing in various conditions, each with its own strengths and weakness. VS performs well in high-SNR, yet its accuracy fails at lower-SNR as it often yields negative values. SP is accurate and precise under high-SNR, remaining accurate in worse conditions than VS would, yet develops a positive bias under low-SNR. The interleaved method is accurate in all SNRs but requires a large number of samples to drive random-noise terms in covariances toward zero and to compensate for the reduced precision due to the splitting of return signals. Therefore, selecting the proper bias removal/elimination method for actual signal and sample conditions is crucial in utilizing lidar/radar data, as neglecting this can conceal trends or overstate atmospheric variability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jackson Jandreau
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental SciencesUniversity of Colorado BoulderBoulderCOUSA
- Department of Aerospace Engineering SciencesUniversity of Colorado BoulderBoulderCOUSA
| | - Xinzhao Chu
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental SciencesUniversity of Colorado BoulderBoulderCOUSA
- Department of Aerospace Engineering SciencesUniversity of Colorado BoulderBoulderCOUSA
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38
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Roșu IA, Nica DC, Dumitraș C, Chitariu D, Bibire L, Ghenadi AS, Dragan VS, Agop M. The Search for Atmospheric Laminar Channels: Experimental Results and Method Dissemination. Sensors (Basel) 2021; 22:158. [PMID: 35009701 PMCID: PMC8749577 DOI: 10.3390/s22010158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Revised: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, a practical application of theoretical developments found in our previous works is explored in relation to atmospheric lidar data. Multifractal structures, previously named "laminar channels", have been identified in atmospheric profiles-these exhibit cellular and self-structuring properties, and are spatially ordered across the atmospheric profile. Furthermore, these structures have been connected to the spontaneous emergence of turbulent behavior in the calm atmospheric flow. Calculating the location and occurrence of these channels can help identify features of atmospheric evolution, such as the development of the planetary boundary layer (PBL). Employing this theoretical background to atmospheric lidar data, attempts are made to confirm this suggestion and extract information about atmospheric structure and evolution by analyzing turbulent vortex scale dynamics and scale-corresponding Lyapunov exponents that form the basis of identifying the laminar channels in atmospheric lidar profiles. A parameter named "scale laminarity index" is then introduced, which quantifies the relation between vortex scale and chaoticity throughout the profile. Finally, the algorithmic methods employed in this study are described and distributed for future use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iulian-Alin Roșu
- Faculty of Physics, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iasi, Bulevardul Carol I 11, 700506 Iasi, Romania;
- Department of Physics, “Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iasi, 700050 Iasi, Romania;
| | - Dragoș-Constantin Nica
- Department of Geography, Faculty of Geography and Geology, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iasi, Bulevardul Carol I 11, 700506 Iasi, Romania
| | - Cătălin Dumitraș
- Faculty of Machine Manufacturing and Industrial Managements, “Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iasi, 700050 Iasi, Romania; (C.D.); (D.C.)
| | - Dragoș Chitariu
- Faculty of Machine Manufacturing and Industrial Managements, “Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iasi, 700050 Iasi, Romania; (C.D.); (D.C.)
| | - Luminița Bibire
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, “Vasile Alecsandri” University of Bacău, 600115 Bacau, Romania;
| | - Adrian Stelian Ghenadi
- Department of Industrial Systems and Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, “Vasile Alecsandri” University of Bacău, 600115 Bacau, Romania;
| | - Valentin-Stelian Dragan
- Faculty of Physics, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iasi, Bulevardul Carol I 11, 700506 Iasi, Romania;
| | - Maricel Agop
- Department of Physics, “Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iasi, 700050 Iasi, Romania;
- Romanian Scientists Academy, 050094 Bucharest, Romania
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Hancock S, McGrath C, Lowe C, Davenport I, Woodhouse I. Requirements for a global lidar system: spaceborne lidar with wall-to-wall coverage. R Soc Open Sci 2021; 8:211166. [PMID: 34877004 PMCID: PMC8647680 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.211166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Lidar is the optimum technology for measuring bare-Earth elevation beneath, and the structure of, vegetation. Consequently, airborne laser scanning (ALS) is widely employed for use in a range of applications. However, ALS is not available globally nor frequently updated due to its high cost per unit area. Spaceborne lidar can map globally but energy requirements limit existing spaceborne lidars to sparse sampling missions, unsuitable for many common ALS applications. This paper derives the equations to calculate the coverage a lidar satellite could achieve for a given set of characteristics (released open-source), then uses a cloud map to determine the number of satellites needed to achieve continuous, global coverage within a certain time-frame. Using the characteristics of existing in-orbit technology, a single lidar satellite could have a continuous swath width of 300 m when producing a 30 m resolution map. Consequently, 12 satellites would be needed to produce a continuous map every 5 years, increasing to 418 satellites for 5 m resolution. Building 12 of the currently in-orbit lidar systems is likely to be prohibitively expensive and so the potential of technological developments to lower the cost of a global lidar system (GLS) are discussed. Once these technologies achieve a sufficient readiness level, a GLS could be cost-effectively realized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven Hancock
- School of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh, Crew Building, Edinburgh EH9 3FF, UK
| | - Ciara McGrath
- Applied Space Technology Laboratory (ApSTL), Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, 204 George St, Glasgow G1 1XW, UK
| | - Christopher Lowe
- Applied Space Technology Laboratory (ApSTL), Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, 204 George St, Glasgow G1 1XW, UK
| | - Ian Davenport
- School of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh, Crew Building, Edinburgh EH9 3FF, UK
| | - Iain Woodhouse
- School of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh, Crew Building, Edinburgh EH9 3FF, UK
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40
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Kim MJ, Yu SH, Kim TH, Kim JU, Kim YM. On the Development of Autonomous Vehicle Safety Distance by an RSS Model Based on a Variable Focus Function Camera. Sensors (Basel) 2021; 21:6733. [PMID: 34695946 DOI: 10.3390/s21206733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Revised: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Today, a lot of research on autonomous driving technology is being conducted, and various vehicles with autonomous driving functions, such as ACC (adaptive cruise control) are being released. The autonomous vehicle recognizes obstacles ahead by the fusion of data from various sensors, such as lidar and radar sensors, including camera sensors. As the number of vehicles equipped with such autonomous driving functions increases, securing safety and reliability is a big issue. Recently, Mobileye proposed the RSS (responsibility-sensitive safety) model, which is a white box mathematical model, to secure the safety of autonomous vehicles and clarify responsibility in the case of an accident. In this paper, a method of applying the RSS model to a variable focus function camera that can cover the recognition range of a lidar sensor and a radar sensor with a single camera sensor is considered. The variables of the RSS model suitable for the variable focus function camera were defined, the variable values were determined, and the safe distances for each velocity were derived by applying the determined variable values. In addition, as a result of considering the time required to obtain the data, and the time required to change the focal length of the camera, it was confirmed that the response time obtained using the derived safe distance was a valid result.
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41
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Zhang Q, Wang Z, Shao J, Weng L, Gao F. Measuring Vehicle Profile Size: Lidar-Based System and K-Frame-Based Methodology. Sensors (Basel) 2021; 21:6206. [PMID: 34577413 DOI: 10.3390/s21186206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Revised: 09/04/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
At present, light curtain is a widely-used method to measure the vehicle profile size. However, it is sensitive to temperature, humidity, dust and other weather factors. In this paper, a lidar-based system with a K-frame-based algorithm is proposed for measuring vehicle profile size. The system is composed of left lidar, right lidar, front lidar, control box and industry controlling computer. Within the system, a K-frame-based methodology is investigated, which include several probable algorithm combinations. Three groups of experiments are conducted. An optimal algorithm combination, A16, is determined through the first group experiments. In the second group experiments, various types of vehicles are chosen to verify the generality and repeatability of the proposed system and methodology. The third group experiments are implemented to compare with vision-based methods and other lidar-based methods. The experimental results show that the proposed K-frame-based methodology is far more accurate than the comparative methods.
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42
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Bhandarkar AR, Bhandarkar S, Jarrah RM, Rosenman D, Bydon M. Smartphone-Based Light Detection and Ranging for Remote Patient Evaluation and Monitoring. Cureus 2021; 13:e16886. [PMID: 34513461 PMCID: PMC8416260 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.16886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
LIDAR (from "light detection and ranging" or "laser imaging, detection, and ranging") is an evolving three-dimensional scanning technology with historical applications in various fields. However, the applicability of LIDAR in the field of medicine has mostly not been examined thus far. Here, we review the basic principles governing LIDAR and its potential to be used in three notable use cases in the context of remote patient monitoring: geriatric fall prevention, postoperative recovery monitoring, and home safety assessment. For assisting geriatric populations, LIDAR can create 3D renderings of their home environments and classify which objects may be associated with risk for falls. These risk factors can then be forwarded to both patients and providers in order for them to discuss how to make the patient's environment safer. LIDAR is also capable of mapping the range of extremity motion in patients undergoing postoperative recovery. Such LIDAR data is simple to acquire and record for these patients and could enable unique metrics to be developed to assess patient outcomes in postoperative recovery. Finally, LIDAR can also reproduce 3D home models to identify attributes of their environments that could be harmful to infants. Given the recent momentum in telehealth following the events of the coronavirus 2019 disease (COVID-19) pandemic, LIDAR may also be a powerful tool in driving new insights from quality improvement initiatives through remote patient monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ryan M Jarrah
- Neurosurgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, USA.,College of Arts and Sciences, University of Michigan-Flint, Flint, USA
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Mao J, Abshire JB, Kawa SR, Riris H, Sun X, Andela N, Kolbeck PT. Measuring Atmospheric CO 2 Enhancements From the 2017 British Columbia Wildfires Using a Lidar. Geophys Res Lett 2021; 48:e2021GL093805. [PMID: 35859666 PMCID: PMC9285436 DOI: 10.1029/2021gl093805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
During the summer 2017 ASCENDS/ABoVE airborne science campaign, the NASA Goddard CO2 Sounder lidar overflew smoke plumes from wildfires in the British Columbia, Canada. In the flight path over Vancouver Island on 8 August 2017, the column XCO2 retrievals from the lidar measurements at flight altitudes around 9 km showed an average enhancement of 4 ppm from the wildfires. A comparison of these enhancements with those from the Goddard Global Chemistry Transport model suggested that the modeled CO2 emissions from wildfires were underestimated by more than a factor of 2. A spiral-down validation performed at Moses Lake airport, Washington showed a bias of 0.1 ppm relative to in situ measurements and a standard deviation of 1 ppm in lidar XCO2 retrievals. The results show that future airborne campaigns and spaceborne missions with this type of lidar can improve estimates of CO2 emissions from wildfires and estimates of carbon fluxes globally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianping Mao
- University of MarylandCollege ParkMDUSA
- NASA Goddard Space Flight CenterGreenbeltMDUSA
| | - James B. Abshire
- University of MarylandCollege ParkMDUSA
- NASA Goddard Space Flight CenterGreenbeltMDUSA
| | | | - Haris Riris
- NASA Goddard Space Flight CenterGreenbeltMDUSA
| | - Xiaoli Sun
- NASA Goddard Space Flight CenterGreenbeltMDUSA
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Penzel M, Herppich WB, Weltzien C, Tsoulias N, Zude-Sasse M. Modeling of Individual Fruit-Bearing Capacity of Trees Is Aimed at Optimizing Fruit Quality of Malus x domestica Borkh. 'Gala'. Front Plant Sci 2021; 12:669909. [PMID: 34326853 PMCID: PMC8315137 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.669909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The capacity of apple trees to produce fruit of a desired diameter, i.e., fruit-bearing capacity (FBC), was investigated by considering the inter-tree variability of leaf area (LA). The LA of 996 trees in a commercial apple orchard was measured by using a terrestrial two-dimensional (2D) light detection and ranging (LiDAR) laser scanner for two consecutive years. The FBC of the trees was simulated in a carbon balance model by utilizing the LiDAR-scanned total LA of the trees, seasonal records of fruit and leaf gas exchanges, fruit growth rates, and weather data. The FBC was compared to the actual fruit size measured in a sorting line on each individual tree. The variance of FBC was similar in both years, whereas each individual tree showed different FBC in both seasons as indicated in the spatially resolved data of FBC. Considering a target mean fruit diameter of 65 mm, FBC ranged from 84 to 168 fruit per tree in 2018 and from 55 to 179 fruit per tree in 2019 depending on the total LA of the trees. The simulated FBC to produce the mean harvest fruit diameter of 65 mm and the actual number of the harvested fruit >65 mm per tree were in good agreement. Fruit quality, indicated by fruit's size and soluble solids content (SSC), showed enhanced percentages of the desired fruit quality according to the seasonally total absorbed photosynthetic energy (TAPE) of the tree per fruit. To achieve a target fruit diameter and reduce the variance in SSC at harvest, the FBC should be considered in crop load management practices. However, achieving this purpose requires annual spatial monitoring of the individual FBC of trees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Penzel
- Chair of Agromechatronics, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Horticultural Engineering, Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Bioeconomy, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Werner B. Herppich
- Horticultural Engineering, Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Bioeconomy, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Cornelia Weltzien
- Chair of Agromechatronics, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Horticultural Engineering, Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Bioeconomy, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Nikos Tsoulias
- Horticultural Engineering, Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Bioeconomy, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Manuela Zude-Sasse
- Horticultural Engineering, Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Bioeconomy, Potsdam, Germany
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45
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Brazeal RG, Wilkinson BE, Hochmair HH. A Rigorous Observation Model for the Risley Prism-Based Livox Mid-40 Lidar Sensor. Sensors (Basel) 2021; 21:s21144722. [PMID: 34300462 PMCID: PMC8309668 DOI: 10.3390/s21144722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Modern lidar sensors are continuing to decrease in size, weight, and cost, but the demand for fast, abundant, and high-accuracy lidar observations is only increasing. The Livox Mid-40 lidar sensor was designed for use within sense-and-avoid navigation systems for autonomous vehicles, but has also found adoption within aerial mapping systems. In order to characterize the overall quality of the point clouds from the Mid-40 sensor and enable sensor calibration, a rigorous model of the sensor’s raw observations is needed. This paper presents the development of an angular observation model for the Mid-40 sensor, and its application within an extended Kalman filter that uses the sensor’s data to estimate the model’s operating parameters, systematic errors, and the instantaneous prism rotation angles for the Risley prism optical steering mechanism. The analysis suggests that the Mid-40’s angular observations are more accurate than the specifications provided by the manufacturer. Additionally, it is shown that the prism rotation angles can be used within a planar constrained least-squares adjustment to theoretically improve the accuracy of the angular observations of the Mid-40 sensor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan G. Brazeal
- Geomatics Program, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA;
- Geospatial Modeling and Applications Laboratory, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Benjamin E. Wilkinson
- Geomatics Program, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA;
- Geospatial Modeling and Applications Laboratory, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
- Correspondence:
| | - Hartwig H. Hochmair
- Geomatics Program, Fort Lauderdale Research & Education Center, School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, University of Florida, Fort Lauderdale, FL 33314, USA;
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Lu X, Hu Y, Yang Y, Vaughan M, Palm S, Trepte C, Omar A, Lucker P, Baize R. Enabling Value Added Scientific Applications of ICESat-2 Data With Effective Removal of Afterpulses. Earth Space Sci 2021; 8:e2021EA001729. [PMID: 34222563 PMCID: PMC8244116 DOI: 10.1029/2021ea001729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The Advanced Topographic Laser Altimeter System (ATLAS) aboard the Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite-2 (ICESat-2) has been making very high resolution measurements of the Earth's surface elevation since October 2018. ATLAS uses photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) as detectors in photon counting mode, so that a single photon reflected back to the receiver triggers a detection within the ICESat-2 data acquisition system. However, one characteristic of ICESat-2 detected photons is the possible presence of afterpulses, defined as small amplitude pulses occurring after the primary signal pulse due to photon arrival. The disadvantage of these afterpulses is that they often confound the accurate measurements of low level signals following a large amplitude of signal and can degrade energy resolution and cause errors in pulse counting applications. This paper discusses and summarizes the after-pulsing effects exhibited by the ATLAS PMTs based on on-orbit measurements over different seasons and geographic regions. The potential impacts of these after-pulsing effects on altimetry and ocean subsurface retrievals are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaomei Lu
- Science Systems and Applications, Inc.HamptonVAUSA
- NASA Langley Research CenterHamptonVAUSA
| | | | - Yuekui Yang
- NASA Goddard Space Flight CenterGreenbeltMDUSA
| | | | - Stephen Palm
- Science Systems and Applications, Inc.HamptonVAUSA
- NASA Goddard Space Flight CenterGreenbeltMDUSA
| | | | - Ali Omar
- NASA Langley Research CenterHamptonVAUSA
| | - Patricia Lucker
- Science Systems and Applications, Inc.HamptonVAUSA
- NASA Langley Research CenterHamptonVAUSA
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García-Gutiérrez A, Domínguez D, López D, Gonzalo J. Atmospheric Boundary Layer Wind Profile Estimation Using Neural Networks Applied to Lidar Measurements. Sensors (Basel) 2021; 21:3659. [PMID: 34074053 DOI: 10.3390/s21113659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Revised: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
This paper introduces a new methodology for estimating the wind profile within the ABL (Atmospheric Boundary Layer) using a neural network and a single-point near-ground measurement. An important advantage of this solution when compared with others available in the literature is that it only requires near surface measurements for the prognosis once the neural network is trained. Another advantage is that it can be used to study the wind profile temporal evolution. This work uses data collected by a lidar sensor located at the Universidad de León (Spain). The neural network best configuration was determined using sensibility analyses. The result is a multilayer perceptron with three layers for each altitude: the input layer has six nodes for the last three measurements, the second has 128 nodes and the third consists of two nodes that provide u and v. The proposed method has better performance than traditional methods. The obtained wind profile information obtained is useful for multiple applications, such as preliminary calculations of the wind resource or CFD models.
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Abstract
Place recognition is critical for both offline mapping and online localization. However, current single-sensor based place recognition still remains challenging in adverse conditions. In this paper, a heterogeneous measurement based framework is proposed for long-term place recognition, which retrieves the query radar scans from the existing lidar (Light Detection and Ranging) maps. To achieve this, a deep neural network is built with joint training in the learning stage, and then in the testing stage, shared embeddings of radar and lidar are extracted for heterogeneous place recognition. To validate the effectiveness of the proposed method, we conducted tests and generalization experiments on the multi-session public datasets and compared them to other competitive methods. The experimental results indicate that our model is able to perform multiple place recognitions: lidar-to-lidar (L2L), radar-to-radar (R2R), and radar-to-lidar (R2L), while the learned model is trained only once. We also release the source code publicly: https://github.com/ZJUYH/radar-to-lidar-place-recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Yue Wang
- Institute of Cyber-Systems and Control, College of Control Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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Goodin C, Carrillo J, Monroe JG, Carruth DW, Hudson CR. An Analytic Model for Negative Obstacle Detection with Lidar and Numerical Validation Using Physics-Based Simulation. Sensors (Basel) 2021; 21:s21093211. [PMID: 34063133 PMCID: PMC8125519 DOI: 10.3390/s21093211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Negative obstacles have long been a challenging aspect of autonomous navigation for ground vehicles. However, as terrestrial lidar sensors have become lighter and less costly, they have increasingly been deployed on small, low-flying UAV, affording an opportunity to use these sensors to aid in autonomous navigation. In this work, we develop an analytical model for predicting the ability of UAV or UGV mounted lidar sensors to detect negative obstacles. This analytical model improves upon past work in this area because it takes the sensor rotation rate and vehicle speed into account, as well as being valid for both large and small view angles. This analytical model is used to predict the influence of velocity on detection range for a negative obstacle and determine a limiting speed when accounting for vehicle stopping distance. Finally, the analytical model is validated with a physics-based simulator in realistic terrain. The results indicate that the analytical model is valid for altitudes above 10 m and show that there are drastic improvements in negative obstacle detection when using a UAV-mounted lidar. It is shown that negative obstacle detection ranges for various UAV-mounted lidar are 60–110 m, depending on the speed of the UAV and the type of lidar used. In contrast, detection ranges for UGV mounted lidar are found to be less than 10 m.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Goodin
- Center for Advanced Vehicular Systems, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA; (D.W.C.); (C.R.H.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Justin Carrillo
- Geotechnical and Structures Laboratory, US Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS 39180, USA; (J.C.); (J.G.M.)
| | - J. Gabriel Monroe
- Geotechnical and Structures Laboratory, US Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS 39180, USA; (J.C.); (J.G.M.)
| | - Daniel W. Carruth
- Center for Advanced Vehicular Systems, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA; (D.W.C.); (C.R.H.)
| | - Christopher R. Hudson
- Center for Advanced Vehicular Systems, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA; (D.W.C.); (C.R.H.)
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Sun X, Cremons DR, Mazarico E, Yang G, Abshire JB, Smith DE, Zuber MT, Storm M, Martin N, Hwang J, Beck JD, Huntoon NR, Rawlings DM. Small All-Range Lidar for Asteroid and Comet Core Missions. Sensors (Basel) 2021; 21:3081. [PMID: 33925157 DOI: 10.3390/s21093081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Revised: 04/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We report the development of a new type of space lidar specifically designed for missions to small planetary bodies for both topographic mapping and support of sample collection or landing. The instrument is designed to have a wide dynamic range with several operation modes for different mission phases. The laser transmitter consists of a fiber laser that is intensity modulated with a return-to-zero pseudo-noise (RZPN) code. The receiver detects the coded pulse-train by correlating the detected signal with the RZPN kernel. Unlike regular pseudo noise (PN) lidars, the RZPN kernel is set to zero outside laser firing windows, which removes most of the background noise over the receiver integration time. This technique enables the use of low peak-power but high pulse-rate lasers, such as fiber lasers, for long-distance ranging without aliasing. The laser power and the internal gain of the detector can both be adjusted to give a wide measurement dynamic range. The laser modulation code pattern can also be reconfigured in orbit to optimize measurements to different measurement environments. The receiver uses a multi-pixel linear mode photon-counting HgCdTe avalanche photodiode (APD) array with near quantum limited sensitivity at near to mid infrared wavelengths where many fiber lasers and diode lasers operate. The instrument is modular and versatile and can be built mostly with components developed by the optical communication industry.
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