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Carulla M, Barten R, Baruffaldi F, Bergamaschi A, Borghi G, Boscardin M, Brückner M, Butcher TA, Centis Vignali M, Dinapoli R, Ebner S, Ficorella F, Fröjdh E, Greiffenberg D, Hammad Ali O, Hasanaj S, Heymes J, Hinger V, King T, Kozlowski P, Lopez Cuenca C, Mezza D, Moustakas K, Mozzanica A, Paternoster G, Paton KA, Ronchin S, Ruder C, Schmitt B, Sieberer P, Thattil D, Vogelsang K, Xie X, Zhang J. Quantum Efficiency Measurement and Modeling of Silicon Sensors Optimized for Soft X-ray Detection. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:942. [PMID: 38339659 PMCID: PMC10856868 DOI: 10.3390/s24030942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
Hybrid pixel detectors have become indispensable at synchrotron and X-ray free-electron laser facilities thanks to their large dynamic range, high frame rate, low noise, and large area. However, at energies below 3 keV, the detector performance is often limited because of the poor quantum efficiency of the sensor and the difficulty in achieving single-photon resolution due to the low signal-to-noise ratio. In this paper, we address the quantum efficiency of silicon sensors by refining the design of the entrance window, mainly by passivating the silicon surface and optimizing the dopant profile of the n+ region. We present the measurement of the quantum efficiency in the soft X-ray energy range for silicon sensors with several process variations in the fabrication of planar sensors with thin entrance windows. The quantum efficiency for 250 eV photons is increased from almost 0.5% for a standard sensor to up to 62% as a consequence of these developments, comparable to the quantum efficiency of backside-illuminated scientific CMOS sensors. Finally, we discuss the influence of the various process parameters on quantum efficiency and present a strategy for further improvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Carulla
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Rebecca Barten
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Filippo Baruffaldi
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Anna Bergamaschi
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Giacomo Borghi
- Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Via Sommarive 18, 38126 Povo, Italy; (G.B.); (M.B.); (M.C.V.); (F.F.); (O.H.A.); (G.P.); (S.R.)
| | - Maurizio Boscardin
- Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Via Sommarive 18, 38126 Povo, Italy; (G.B.); (M.B.); (M.C.V.); (F.F.); (O.H.A.); (G.P.); (S.R.)
| | - Martin Brückner
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Tim A. Butcher
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Matteo Centis Vignali
- Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Via Sommarive 18, 38126 Povo, Italy; (G.B.); (M.B.); (M.C.V.); (F.F.); (O.H.A.); (G.P.); (S.R.)
| | - Roberto Dinapoli
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Simon Ebner
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Francesco Ficorella
- Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Via Sommarive 18, 38126 Povo, Italy; (G.B.); (M.B.); (M.C.V.); (F.F.); (O.H.A.); (G.P.); (S.R.)
| | - Erik Fröjdh
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Dominic Greiffenberg
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Omar Hammad Ali
- Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Via Sommarive 18, 38126 Povo, Italy; (G.B.); (M.B.); (M.C.V.); (F.F.); (O.H.A.); (G.P.); (S.R.)
| | - Shqipe Hasanaj
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Julian Heymes
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Viktoria Hinger
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Thomas King
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Pawel Kozlowski
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Carlos Lopez Cuenca
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Davide Mezza
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Konstantinos Moustakas
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Aldo Mozzanica
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Giovanni Paternoster
- Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Via Sommarive 18, 38126 Povo, Italy; (G.B.); (M.B.); (M.C.V.); (F.F.); (O.H.A.); (G.P.); (S.R.)
| | - Kirsty A. Paton
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Sabina Ronchin
- Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Via Sommarive 18, 38126 Povo, Italy; (G.B.); (M.B.); (M.C.V.); (F.F.); (O.H.A.); (G.P.); (S.R.)
| | - Christian Ruder
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Bernd Schmitt
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Patrick Sieberer
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Dhanya Thattil
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Konrad Vogelsang
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Xiangyu Xie
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
| | - Jiaguo Zhang
- Paul Scherrer Institut, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland (F.B.); (A.B.); (T.A.B.); (R.D.); (E.F.); (D.G.); (J.H.); (V.H.); (D.M.); (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.A.P.); (B.S.); (P.S.); (X.X.); (J.Z.)
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Zayko S, Kfir O, Heigl M, Lohmann M, Sivis M, Albrecht M, Ropers C. Ultrafast high-harmonic nanoscopy of magnetization dynamics. Nat Commun 2021; 12:6337. [PMID: 34732725 PMCID: PMC8566501 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-26594-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Light-induced magnetization changes, such as all-optical switching, skyrmion nucleation, and intersite spin transfer, unfold on temporal and spatial scales down to femtoseconds and nanometers, respectively. Pump-probe spectroscopy and diffraction studies indicate that spatio-temporal dynamics may drastically affect the non-equilibrium magnetic evolution. Yet, direct real-space magnetic imaging on the relevant timescales has remained challenging. Here, we demonstrate ultrafast high-harmonic nanoscopy employing circularly polarized high-harmonic radiation for real-space imaging of femtosecond magnetization dynamics. We map quenched magnetic domains and localized spin structures in Co/Pd multilayers with a sub-wavelength spatial resolution down to 16 nm, and strobosocopically trace the local magnetization dynamics with 40 fs temporal resolution. Our compact experimental setup demonstrates the highest spatio-temporal resolution of magneto-optical imaging to date. Facilitating ultrafast imaging with high sensitivity to chiral and linear dichroism, we envisage a wide range of applications spanning magnetism, phase transitions, and carrier dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergey Zayko
- 4th Physical Institute-Solids and Nanostructures, University of Göttingen, 37077, Göttingen, Germany.
- Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, 37077, Göttingen, Germany.
| | - Ofer Kfir
- 4th Physical Institute-Solids and Nanostructures, University of Göttingen, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
- School of Electrical Engineering, Tel Aviv University, 69978, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Michael Heigl
- Institute of Physics, University of Augsburg, 86159, Augsburg, Germany
| | - Michael Lohmann
- 4th Physical Institute-Solids and Nanostructures, University of Göttingen, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Murat Sivis
- 4th Physical Institute-Solids and Nanostructures, University of Göttingen, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Manfred Albrecht
- Institute of Physics, University of Augsburg, 86159, Augsburg, Germany
| | - Claus Ropers
- 4th Physical Institute-Solids and Nanostructures, University of Göttingen, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
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