Rapid monitoring of cerebral ischemia dynamics using laser-based optical imaging of blood oxygenation and flow

Spreading depolarization suppression from inter-astrocytic gap junction blockade assessed with multimodal imaging and a novel wavefront detection scheme

Spreading depolarizations (SDs) are an enigmatic and ubiquitous co-morbidity of neural dysfunction. SDs are propagating waves of local field depolarization and increased extracellular potassium. They increase the metabolic demand on brain tissue, resulting in changes in tissue blood flow, and are associated with adverse neurological consequences including stroke, epilepsy, neurotrauma, and migraine. Their occurrence is associated with poor patient prognosis through mechanisms which are only partially understood. Here we show in vivo that two (structurally dissimilar) drugs, which suppress astroglial gap junctional communication, can acutely suppress SDs. We found that mefloquine hydrochloride (MQH), administered IP, slowed the propagation of the SD potassium waveform and intermittently led to its suppression. The hemodynamic response was similarly delayed and intermittently suppressed. Furthermore, in instances where SD led to transient tissue swelling, MQH reduced observable tissue displacement. Administration of meclofenamic acid (MFA) IP was found to reduce blood flow, both proximal and distal, to the site of SD induction, preceding a large reduction in the amplitude of the SD-associated potassium wave. We introduce a novel image processing scheme for SD wavefront localization under low-contrast imaging conditions permitting full-field wavefront velocity mapping and wavefront parametrization. We found that MQH administration delayed SD wavefront's optical correlates. These two clinically used drugs, both gap junctional blockers found to distinctly suppress SDs, may be of therapeutic benefit in the various brain disorders associated with recurrent SDs.

Functional ultrasound imaging of stroke in awake rats

Anesthesia is a major confounding factor in preclinical stroke research as stroke rarely occurs in sedated patients. Moreover, anesthesia affects both brain functions and the stroke outcome acting as neurotoxic or protective agents. So far, no approaches were well suited to induce stroke while imaging hemodynamics along with simultaneous large-scale recording of brain functions in awake animals. For this reason, the first critical hours following the stroke insult and associated functional alteration remain poorly understood. Here, we present a strategy to investigate both stroke hemodynamics and stroke-induced functional alterations without the confounding effect of anesthesia, i.e., under awake condition. Functional ultrasound (fUS) imaging was used to continuously monitor variations in cerebral blood volume (CBV) in +65 brain regions/hemispheres for up to 3 hr after stroke onset. The focal cortical ischemia was induced using a chemo-thrombotic agent suited for permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion in awake rats and followed by ipsi- and contralesional whiskers stimulation to investigate on the dynamic of the thalamocortical functions. Early (0-3 hr) and delayed (day 5) fUS recording enabled to characterize the features of the ischemia (location, CBV loss), spreading depolarizations (occurrence, amplitude) and functional alteration of the somatosensory thalamocortical circuits. Post-stroke thalamocortical functions were affected at both early and later time points (0-3 hr and 5 days) after stroke. Overall, our procedure facilitates early, continuous, and chronic assessments of hemodynamics and cerebral functions. When integrated with stroke studies or other pathological analyses, this approach seeks to enhance our comprehension of physiopathologies towards the development of pertinent therapeutic interventions.

Visualization of two-dimensional transverse blood flow direction using optical coherence tomography angiography

SIGNIFICANCE

Evaluation of vessel patency and blood flow direction is important in various medical situations, including diagnosis and monitoring of ischemic diseases, and image-guided vascular surgeries. While optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) is the most widely used functional extension of optical coherence tomography that visualizes three-dimensional vasculature, inability to provide information of blood flow direction is one of its limitations.

AIM

We demonstrate two-dimensional (2D) transverse blood flow direction imaging in en face OCTA.

APPROACH

A series of triangular beam scans for the fast axis was implemented in the horizontal direction for the first volume scan and in the vertical direction for the following volume scan, and the inter A-line OCTA was performed for the blood flow direction imaging while the stepwise pattern was used for each slow axis scan. The decorrelation differences between the forward and the backward inter A-line OCTA were calculated for the horizontal and the vertical fast axis scans, and the ratio of the horizontal and the vertical decorrelation differences was utilized to show the 2D transverse flow direction information.

RESULTS

OCTA flow direction imaging was verified using flow phantoms with various flow orientations and speeds, and we identified the flow speed range relative to the scan speed for reliable flow direction measurement. We demonstrated the visualization of 2D transverse blood flow orientations in mouse brain vascular networks in vivo.

CONCLUSIONS

The proposed OCTA imaging technique that provides information of 2D transverse flow direction can be utilized in various clinical applications and preclinical studies.

Data compression and improved registration for laser speckle contrast imaging of rodent brains

Single-frame blood flow maps from laser speckle contrast imaging (LSCI) contain high spatiotemporal variation that obscures high spatial-frequency vascular features, making precise image registration for signal amplification challenging. In this work, novel bivariate standardized moment filters (BSMFs) were used to provide stable measures of vessel edge location, permitting more robust LSCI registration. Relatedly, BSMFs enabled the stable reconstruction of vessel edges from sparsely distributed blood flow map outliers, which were found to retain most of the temporal dynamics. Consequently, data discarding and BSMF-based reconstruction enable efficient real-time quantitative LSCI data compression. Smaller LSCI-kernels produced log-normal blood flow distributions, enhancing sparse-to-dense inference.

Real-time full-field optical angiography utilizing principal component analysis

We develop a real-time full-field optical angiography method using principal component analysis (PCA). In our approach, an undersampled laser Doppler method is used to record the raw images. Considering the difference in the signal component contributions, PCA is used to separate the dynamic blood flow and static background signals. The principal advantage of the PCA method is that the choice of a high pixel number can aid in efficiently extracting the blood flow signal with finite frame raw images, which can greatly improve the temporal resolution. Our phantom experimental results validate our choice of the optimal frame number for reconstructing an angiographic image. A vascular occlusion test on a rabbit ear demonstrates that global and simultaneous hemodynamic processes of vessels can be monitored.

Understanding the neurovascular unit at multiple scales: Advantages and limitations of multi-photon and functional ultrasound imaging

Developing efficient brain imaging technologies by combining a high spatiotemporal resolution and a large penetration depth is a key step for better understanding the neurovascular interface that emerges as a main pathway to neurodegeneration in many pathologies such as dementia. This review focuses on the advances in two complementary techniques: multi-photon laser scanning microscopy (MPLSM) and functional ultrasound imaging (fUSi). MPLSM has become the gold standard for in vivo imaging of cellular dynamics and morphology, together with cerebral blood flow. fUSi is an innovative imaging modality based on Doppler ultrasound, capable of recording vascular brain activity over large scales (i.e., tens of cubic millimeters) at unprecedented spatial and temporal resolution for such volumes (up to 10μm pixel size at 10kHz). By merging these two technologies, researchers may have access to a more detailed view of the various processes taking place at the neurovascular interface. MPLSM and fUSi are also good candidates for addressing the major challenge of real-time delivery, monitoring, and in vivo evaluation of drugs in neuronal tissue.

Continuous multi-modality brain imaging reveals modified neurovascular seizure response after intervention

We developed a multi-modal brain imaging system to investigate the relationship between blood flow, blood oxygenation/volume, intracellular calcium and electrographic activity during acute seizure-like events (SLEs), both before and after pharmacological intervention. Rising blood volume was highly specific to SLE-onset whereas blood flow was more correlated with all eletrographic activity. Intracellular calcium spiked between SLEs and at SLE-onset with oscillation during SLEs. Modified neurovascular and ionic SLE responses were observed after intervention and the interval between SLEs became shorter and more inconsistent. Comparison of artery and vein pulsatile flow suggest proximal interference and greater vascular leakage prior to intervention.

Imaging brain activity during seizures in freely behaving rats using a miniature multi-modal imaging system

We report on a miniature label-free imaging system for monitoring brain blood flow and blood oxygenation changes in awake, freely behaving rats. The device, weighing 15 grams, enables imaging in a ∼ 2 × 2 mm field of view with 4.4 μm lateral resolution and 1 - 8 Hz temporal sampling rate. The imaging is performed through a chronically-implanted cranial window that remains optically clear between 2 to > 6 weeks after the craniotomy. This imaging method is well suited for longitudinal studies of chronic models of brain diseases and disorders. In this work, it is applied to monitoring neurovascular coupling during drug-induced absence-like seizures 6 weeks following the craniotomy.

Noninvasive assessment of hemodynamic and brain metabolism parameters following closed head injury in a mouse model by comparative diffuse optical reflectance approaches

Optical techniques have gained substantial interest over the past four decades for biomedical imaging due to their unique advantages, which may suggest their use as alternatives to conventional methodologies. Several optical techniques have been successfully adapted to clinical practice and biomedical research to monitor tissue structure and function in both humans and animal models. This paper reviews the analysis of the optical properties of brain tissue in the wavelength range between 500 and 1000 nm by three different diffuse optical reflectance methods: spatially modulated illumination, orthogonal diffuse light spectroscopy, and dual-wavelength laser speckle imaging, to monitor changes in brain tissue morphology, chromophore content, and metabolism following head injury. After induction of closed head injury upon anesthetized mice by weight-drop method, significant changes in hemoglobin oxygen saturation, blood flow, and metabolism were readily detectible by all three optical setups, up to 1 h post-trauma. Furthermore, the experimental results clearly demonstrate the feasibility and reliability of the three methodologies, and the differences between the system performances and capabilities are also discussed. The long-term goal of this line of study is to combine these optical systems to study brain pathophysiology in high spatiotemporal resolution using additional models of brain trauma. Such combined use of complementary algorithms should fill the gaps in each system's capabilities, toward the development of a noninvasive, quantitative tool to expand our knowledge of the principles underlying brain function following trauma, and to monitor the efficacy of therapeutic interventions in the clinic.

Optical coherence tomography-guided laser microsurgery for blood coagulation with continuous-wave laser diode

Blood coagulation is the clotting and subsequent dissolution of the clot following repair to the damaged tissue. However, inducing blood coagulation is difficult for some patients with homeostasis dysfunction or during surgery. In this study, we proposed a method to develop an integrated system that combines optical coherence tomography (OCT) and laser microsurgery for blood coagulation. Also, an algorithm for positioning of the treatment location from OCT images was developed. With OCT scanning, 2D/3D OCT images and angiography of tissue can be obtained simultaneously, enabling to noninvasively reconstruct the morphological and microvascular structures for real-time monitoring of changes in biological tissues during laser microsurgery. Instead of high-cost pulsed lasers, continuous-wave laser diodes (CW-LDs) with the central wavelengths of 450 nm and 532 nm are used for blood coagulation, corresponding to higher absorption coefficients of oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin. Experimental results showed that the location of laser exposure can be accurately controlled with the proposed approach of imaging-based feedback positioning. Moreover, blood coagulation can be efficiently induced by CW-LDs and the coagulation process can be monitored in real-time with OCT. This technology enables to potentially provide accurate positioning for laser microsurgery and control the laser exposure to avoid extra damage by real-time OCT imaging.

Detecting concentrations of milk components by an iterative optical technique

This paper introduces a theoretical and practical model for reconstructing the scattering properties of a participating media. Our theory is based on a robust generalization of the Gerchberg-Saxton (G-S) algorithm. At the end of this algorithm the reduced scattering coefficient μ's of a given substance, can be estimated from the standard deviation (STD) of the retrieved phase of the remitted light. We use the theory to compute the phase's STD that directly correlated to the optical properties for different types of milk components, and we derive a novel appearance model for milk parameterized by the lactose and protein contents. Our results show that we are able to detect the possibility of lactose and milk proteins' quantitative signature by the G-S optical tool, en route to the design of a novel milk-content-monitoring tool. Sketch of the experimental setup for light intensity measurements and reduced scattering coefficient reconstruction. The samples were prepared from various milk components: whey protein, sodium casienate and lactose, at different concentrations.

Detecting nanoparticles in tissue using an optical iterative technique

Determining the physical penetration depth of nanoparticles (NPs) into tissues is a challenge that many researchers have been facing in recent years. This paper presents a new noninvasive method for detecting NPs in tissue using an optical iterative technique based on the Gerchberg-Saxton (G-S) algorithm. At the end of this algorithm the reduced scattering coefficient (µs'), of a given substance, can be estimated from the standard deviation (STD) of the retrieved phase of the remitted light. Presented in this paper are the results of a tissue simulation which indicate a linear ratio between the STD and the scattering components. A linear ratio was also observed in the tissue-like phantoms and in ex vivo experiments with and without NPs (Gold nanorods and nano Methylene Blue). The proposed technique is the first step towards determining the physical penetration depth of NPs.

Laser speckle contrast imaging with extended depth of field for in-vivo tissue imaging

This work presents, to our knowledge, the first demonstration of the Laser Speckle Contrast Imaging (LSCI) technique with extended depth of field (DOF). We employ wavefront coding on the detected beam to gain quantitative information on flow speeds through a DOF extended two-fold compared to the traditional system. We characterize the system in-vitro using controlled microfluidic experiments, and apply it in-vivo to imaging the somatosensory cortex of a rat, showing improved ability to image flow in a larger number of vessels simultaneously.

Rapid multiexposure in vivo brain imaging system using vertical cavity surface emitting lasers as a light source

We demonstrate an imaging technique implementing vertical cavity lasers with extremely low transient times for a greatly simplified realization of a multiexposure laser speckle contrast imaging system. Data from multiexposure laser speckle imaging was observed to more closely agree with absolute velocity measurements using time of flight technique, when compared to long-exposure laser speckle imaging. Furthermore, additional depth information of the vasculature morphology was inferred by accounting for the change in the static scattering from tissue above vessels with respect to the total scattering from blood flow and tissue.

High-resolution spectral imaging based on coded dispersion

Since the energy of the incident light is constant, the spatial and spectral resolution can hardly be improved without scarifying the other with the spectral imaging method of a pushbroom scanner. Thus, a new spectral imaging method is proposed to obtain a high-resolution (HR) spectral image with a low-resolution detector array. The method, namely coded dispersion, by which compressive measurement is achieved, improves light collection efficiency, and then a high-quality reconstructed HR spectral image is obtained with fewer sensors. The simulation result shows that with prior knowledge of scenes available, the proposed method also offers a new way to acquire an HR spectral image while the density of detector array is constrained by battery, capacity, transmission bandwidth, and cost.

Evaluation of laser speckle contrast imaging as an intrinsic method to monitor blood brain barrier integrity

The integrity of the blood brain barrier (BBB) can contribute to the development of many brain disorders. We evaluate laser speckle contrast imaging (LSCI) as an intrinsic modality for monitoring BBB disruptions through simultaneous fluorescence and LSCI with vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELs). We demonstrated that drug-induced BBB opening was associated with a relative change of the arterial and venous blood velocities. Cross-sectional flow velocity ratio (veins/arteries) decreased significantly in rats treated with BBB-opening drugs, ≤0.81 of initial values.