Extendable, miniaturized multi-modal optical imaging system: cortical hemodynamic observation in freely moving animals

A Wearable Fiber-Free Optical Sensor for Continuous Monitoring of Cerebral Blood Flow in Freely Behaving Mice

OBJECTIVE

Wearable technologies for functional brain monitoring in freely behaving subjects can advance our understanding of cognitive processing and adaptive behavior. Existing technologies are lacking in this capability or need procedures that are invasive and/or otherwise impede brain assessments during social behavioral conditions, exercise, and sleep.

METHODS

In response a complete system was developed to combine relative cerebral blood flow (rCBF) measurement, O2 and CO2 supplies, and behavior recording for use on conscious, freely behaving mice. An innovative diffuse speckle contrast flowmetry (DSCF) device and associated hardware were miniaturized and optimized for rCBF measurements in small subject applications. The use of this wearable, fiber-free, near-infrared DSCF head-stage/probe allowed no craniotomy, minimally invasive probe implantation, and minimal restraint of the awake animal.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Significant correlations were found between measurements with the new DSCF design and an optical standard. The system successfully detected rCBF responses to CO2-induced hypercapnia in both anesthetized and freely behaving mice.

SIGNIFICANCE

Collecting rCBF and activity information together during natural behaviors provides realistic physiological results and opens the path to exploring their correlations with pathophysiological conditions.

Modular head-mounted cortical imaging device for chronic monitoring of intrinsic signals in mice

SIGNIFICANCE

Intrinsic optical signals (IOS) generated in the cortical tissue as a result of various interacting metabolic processes are used extensively to elucidate the underlying mechanisms that govern neurovascular coupling. However, current IOS measurements still often rely on bulky, tabletop imaging systems, and there remains a dearth of studies in freely moving subjects. Lightweight, miniature head-mounted imaging devices provide unique opportunities for investigating cortical dynamics in small animals under a variety of naturalistic behavioral settings.

AIM

The aim of this work was to monitor IOS in the somatosensory cortex of wild-type mice by developing a lightweight, biocompatible imaging device that readily lends itself to animal experiments in freely moving conditions.

APPROACH

Herein we describe a method for realizing long-term IOS imaging in mice using a 0.54-g, compact, CMOS-based, head-mounted imager. The two-part module, consisting of a tethered sensor plate and a base plate, allows facile assembly prior to imaging sessions and disassembly when the sensor is not in use. LEDs integrated into the device were chosen to illuminate the cortical mantle at two different wavelengths in the visible regime (λcenter: 535 and 625 nm) for monitoring volume- and oxygenation state-dependent changes in the IOS, respectively. To test whether the system can detect robust cortical responses, we recorded sensory-evoked IOS from mechanical stimulation of the hindlimbs (HL) of anesthetized mice in both acute and long-term implantation conditions.

RESULTS

Cortical IOS recordings in the primary somatosensory cortex hindlimb receptive field (S1HL) of anesthetized mice under green and red LED illumination revealed robust, multiphasic profiles that were time-locked to the mechanical stimulation of the contralateral plantar hindpaw. Similar intrinsic signal profiles observed in S1HL at 40 days postimplantation demonstrated the viability of the approach for long-term imaging. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that the brain tissue did not exhibit appreciable immune response due to the device implantation and operation. A proof-of-principle imaging session in a freely behaving mouse showed minimal locomotor impediment for the animal and also enabled estimation of blood flow speed.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrate the utility of a miniature cortical imaging device for monitoring IOS and related hemodynamic processes in both anesthetized and freely moving mice, cueing potential for applications to some neuroscientific studies of sensation and naturalistic behavior.

Extendable, large-field multi-modal optical imaging system for measuring tissue hemodynamics

Simultaneous imaging of multiple hemodynamic parameters helps to evaluate the physiological and pathological status of biological tissue. To achieve multimodal hemodynamics imaging with a large field of view, an infinite conjugate relay lens system compatible with the standard C-Mount camera lens is designed to adapt one camera lens with multiple CCD/CMOS cameras for simultaneously multi-wavelength imaging. Using this relay lens system, dual wavelength reflectance imaging and laser speckle contrast imaging were combined to simultaneously detect the changes in blood flow, oxygenation, and hemoglobin concentrations. To improve the accuracy of hemoglobin concentration measurement with an LED illumination source, an integral algorithm is proposed that accounts for the dependence of differential pathlength factors (DPF) on hemoglobin concentrations and the integral effect of both the emission spectrum of the light source and the spectrum response of the detector. The imaging system is validated by both phantom and in vivo experiments, including the arterial occlusion, and the detection of blood volume pulse (BVP) and blood flow pulse (BFP) signal in human subjects. The system helps in the exploration of macroscopic tissue hemodynamics.

A miniature multi-contrast microscope for functional imaging in freely behaving animals

Neurovascular coupling, cerebrovascular remodeling and hemodynamic changes are critical to brain function, and dysregulated in neuropathologies such as brain tumors. Interrogating these phenomena in freely behaving animals requires a portable microscope with multiple optical contrast mechanisms. Therefore, we developed a miniaturized microscope with: a fluorescence (FL) channel for imaging neural activity (e.g., GCaMP) or fluorescent cancer cells (e.g., 9L-GFP); an intrinsic optical signal (IOS) channel for imaging hemoglobin absorption (i.e., cerebral blood volume); and a laser speckle contrast (LSC) channel for imaging perfusion (i.e., cerebral blood flow). Following extensive validation, we demonstrate the microscope’s capabilities via experiments in unanesthetized murine brains that include: (i) multi-contrast imaging of neurovascular changes following auditory stimulation; (ii) wide-area tonotopic mapping; (iii) EEG-synchronized imaging during anesthesia recovery; and (iv) microvascular connectivity mapping over the life-cycle of a brain tumor. This affordable, flexible, plug-and-play microscope heralds a new era in functional imaging of freely behaving animals.

Measuring multiple neurophysiologic variables usually requires bulky benchtop optical systems and working with anesthetized animals. Here the authors present a miniature portable microscope for neurovascular imaging in awake rodents, combining fluorescence, intrinsic optical signals and laser speckle contrast.

Enhancing vascular visualization in laser speckle contrast imaging of blood flow using multi-focus image fusion

Laser speckle contrast imaging (LSCI) is a full-field optical imaging method for monitoring blood flow and vascular morphology with high spatiotemporal resolution. However, due to the limited depth of field of optical system, it is difficult to capture a clear blood flow image with all blood vessels focused, especially for the non-planar biological tissues. In this study, a multi-focus image fusion method based on contourlet transform is introduced to reduce the misfocus effects in LSCI. The experimental results suggest that this method can provide an all-in-focus blood flow image, which is convenient to observe the blood vessels.

TiO2 -coated fluoride nanoparticles for dental multimodal optical imaging

Core-shell nanostructures associated with photonics techniques have found innumerous applications in diagnostics and therapy. In this work, we introduce a novel core-shell nanostructure design that serves as a multimodal optical imaging contrast agent for dental adhesion evaluation. This nanostructure consists of a rare-earth-doped (NaYF₄ :Yb 60%, Tm 0.5%)/NaYF₄ particle as the core (hexagonal prism, ~51 nm base side length) and the highly refractive TiO₂ material as the shell (~thickness of 15 nm). We show that the TiO₂ shell provides enhanced contrast for optical coherence tomography (OCT), while the rare-earth-doped core upconverts excitation light from 975 nm to an emission peaked at 800 nm for photoluminescence imaging. The OCT and the photoluminescence wide-field images of human tooth were demonstrated with this nanoparticle core-shell contrast agent. In addition, the described core-shell nanoparticles (CSNps) were dispersed in the primer of a commercially available dental bonding system, allowing clear identification of dental adhesive layers with OCT. We evaluated that the presence of the CSNp in the adhesive induced an enhancement of 67% scattering coefficient to significantly increase the OCT contrast. Moreover, our results highlight that the upconversion photoluminescence in the near-infrared spectrum region is suitable for image of deep dental tissue.

Chronic wide-field imaging of brain hemodynamics in behaving animals

Chronically monitoring cerebral activities in awake and freely moving status is very important in physiological and pathological studies. We present a novel standalone micro-imager for monitoring the cerebral blood flow (CBF) and total hemoglobin (HbT) activities in freely moving animals using the laser speckle contrast imaging (LSCI) and optical intrinsic signal (OIS) methods. A new cranial window method, using contact lens and wide field optics, is also proposed to achieve the chronic and wide-field imaging of rat's cerebral cortex. The hemodynamic activities of rats' cortex were measured for the first time without restriction of cables or fibers in awake and behaving animals. Chronic imaging showed the increase of CBF and HbT in motor cortex when the rats were climbing on the cage wall. Interestingly, the CBF activation of supplying vessel was smaller than that of parenchyma. Furthermore, after the climbing, CBF demonstrated fully return to the baseline while HbT showed a delayed recovery. The standalone micro-imager technology provides new possibilities of brain imaging in cognitive neuroscience studies.

Imaging brain activity during seizures in freely behaving rats using a miniature multi-modal imaging system

We report on a miniature label-free imaging system for monitoring brain blood flow and blood oxygenation changes in awake, freely behaving rats. The device, weighing 15 grams, enables imaging in a ∼ 2 × 2 mm field of view with 4.4 μm lateral resolution and 1 - 8 Hz temporal sampling rate. The imaging is performed through a chronically-implanted cranial window that remains optically clear between 2 to > 6 weeks after the craniotomy. This imaging method is well suited for longitudinal studies of chronic models of brain diseases and disorders. In this work, it is applied to monitoring neurovascular coupling during drug-induced absence-like seizures 6 weeks following the craniotomy.

Intraoperative laser speckle contrast imaging improves the stability of rodent middle cerebral artery occlusion model

Rodent middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model is commonly used in stroke research. Creating a stable infarct volume has always been challenging for technicians due to the variances of animal anatomy and surgical operations. The depth of filament suture advancement strongly influences the infarct volume as well. We investigated the cerebral blood flow (CBF) changes in the affected cortex using laser speckle contrast imaging when advancing suture during MCAO surgery. The relative CBF drop area (CBF50, i.e., the percentage area with CBF less than 50% of the baseline) showed an increase from 20.9% to 69.1% when the insertion depth increased from 1.6 to 1.8 cm. Using the real-time CBF50 marker to guide suture insertion during the surgery, our animal experiments showed that intraoperative CBF-guided surgery could significantly improve the stability of MCAO with a more consistent infarct volume and less mortality.

Miniaturized optical neuroimaging in unrestrained animals

The confluence of technological advances in optics, miniaturized electronic components and the availability of ever increasing and affordable computational power have ushered in a new era in functional neuroimaging, namely, an era in which neuroimaging of cortical function in unrestrained and unanesthetized rodents has become a reality. Traditional optical neuroimaging required animals to be anesthetized and restrained. This greatly limited the kinds of experiments that could be performed in vivo. Now one can assess blood flow and oxygenation changes resulting from functional activity and image functional response in disease models such as stroke and seizure, and even conduct long-term imaging of tumor physiology, all without the confounding effects of anesthetics or animal restraints. These advances are shedding new light on mammalian brain organization and function, and helping to elucidate loss of this organization or 'dysfunction' in a wide array of central nervous system disease models. In this review, we highlight recent advances in the fabrication, characterization and application of miniaturized head-mounted optical neuroimaging systems pioneered by innovative investigators from a wide array of disciplines. We broadly classify these systems into those based on exogenous contrast agents, such as single- and two-photon microscopy systems; and those based on endogenous contrast mechanisms, such as multispectral or laser speckle contrast imaging systems. Finally, we conclude with a discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of these approaches along with a perspective on the future of this exciting new frontier in neuroimaging.

Medical hyperspectral imaging: a review

Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) is an emerging imaging modality for medical applications, especially in disease diagnosis and image-guided surgery. HSI acquires a three-dimensional dataset called hypercube, with two spatial dimensions and one spectral dimension. Spatially resolved spectral imaging obtained by HSI provides diagnostic information about the tissue physiology, morphology, and composition. This review paper presents an overview of the literature on medical hyperspectral imaging technology and its applications. The aim of the survey is threefold: an introduction for those new to the field, an overview for those working in the field, and a reference for those searching for literature on a specific application.