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Xiong B, Zhu T, Xiang Y, Li X, Yu J, Jiang Z, Niu Y, Jiang D, Zhang X, Fang L, Wu J, Dai Q. Mirror-enhanced scanning light-field microscopy for long-term high-speed 3D imaging with isotropic resolution. LIGHT, SCIENCE & APPLICATIONS 2021; 10:227. [PMID: 34737265 PMCID: PMC8568963 DOI: 10.1038/s41377-021-00665-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Various biological behaviors can only be observed in 3D at high speed over the long term with low phototoxicity. Light-field microscopy (LFM) provides an elegant compact solution to record 3D information in a tomographic manner simultaneously, which can facilitate high photon efficiency. However, LFM still suffers from the missing-cone problem, leading to degraded axial resolution and ringing effects after deconvolution. Here, we propose a mirror-enhanced scanning LFM (MiSLFM) to achieve long-term high-speed 3D imaging at super-resolved axial resolution with a single objective, by fully exploiting the extended depth of field of LFM with a tilted mirror placed below samples. To establish the unique capabilities of MiSLFM, we performed extensive experiments, we observed various organelle interactions and intercellular interactions in different types of photosensitive cells under extremely low light conditions. Moreover, we demonstrated that superior axial resolution facilitates more robust blood cell tracking in zebrafish larvae at high speed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Xiong
- Department of Automation, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
- Institute for Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
- Beijing Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Intelligence, Beijing Municipal Education Commission, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Tianyi Zhu
- Department of Automation, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
- Institute for Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
- Beijing Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Intelligence, Beijing Municipal Education Commission, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Yuhan Xiang
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Tsinghua University-Peking University Joint Centre for Life Sciences, Beijing Frontier Research Center for Biological Structure, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Xiaopeng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Tsinghua University-Peking University Joint Centre for Life Sciences, Beijing Frontier Research Center for Biological Structure, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Jinqiang Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Tsinghua University-Peking University Joint Centre for Life Sciences, Beijing Frontier Research Center for Biological Structure, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Zheng Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Tsinghua University-Peking University Joint Centre for Life Sciences, Beijing Frontier Research Center for Biological Structure, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Yihan Niu
- Department of Automation, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
- Institute for Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
- Beijing Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Intelligence, Beijing Municipal Education Commission, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Dong Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Tsinghua University-Peking University Joint Centre for Life Sciences, Beijing Frontier Research Center for Biological Structure, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Xu Zhang
- Beijing Institute of Collaborative Innovation, Beijing, 100094, China
| | - Lu Fang
- Institute for Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.
- Department of Electronic Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.
| | - Jiamin Wu
- Department of Automation, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.
- Institute for Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.
- Beijing Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Intelligence, Beijing Municipal Education Commission, Beijing, 100084, China.
| | - Qionghai Dai
- Department of Automation, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.
- Institute for Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.
- Beijing Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Intelligence, Beijing Municipal Education Commission, Beijing, 100084, China.
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Zhou Y, Zammit P, Zickus V, Taylor JM, Harvey AR. Twin-Airy Point-Spread Function for Extended-Volume Particle Localization. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2020; 124:198104. [PMID: 32469536 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.124.198104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2019] [Revised: 11/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The localization of point sources in optical microscopy enables nm-precision imaging of single-molecules and biological dynamics. We report a new method of localization microscopy using twin Airy beams that yields precise 3D localization with the key advantages of extended depth range, higher optical throughput, and potential for imaging higher emitter densities than are possible using other techniques. A precision of better than 30 nm was achieved over a depth range in excess of 7 μm using a 60×, 1.4 NA objective. An illustrative application to extended-depth-range blood-flow imaging in a live zebrafish is also demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongzhuang Zhou
- School of Physics & Astronomy, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Zammit
- School of Physics & Astronomy, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom
| | - Vytautas Zickus
- School of Physics & Astronomy, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan M Taylor
- School of Physics & Astronomy, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew R Harvey
- School of Physics & Astronomy, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom
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mmSTORM: Multimodal localization based super-resolution microscopy. Sci Rep 2019; 9:798. [PMID: 30692575 PMCID: PMC6349879 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-37341-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Super-resolution localization microscopy provides a powerful tool to study biochemical mechanisms at single molecule level. Although the lateral position of the fluorescent dye molecules can be determined routinely with high precision, measurement of other modalities such as 3D and multicolor without the degradation of the original super-resolved image is still in the focus. In this paper a dual-objective multimodal single molecule localization microscopy (SMLM) technique has been developed, optimized and tested. The proposed optical arrangement can be implemented onto a conventional inverted microscope without serious system modification. The performance of the method was tested using fluorescence beads, F-actin filaments and sarcomere structures. It was shown that the proposed imaging method does not degrade the image quality of the original SMLM 2D image but could provide information on the axial position or emission spectra of the dye molecules.
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Yoon J, Comerci CJ, Weiss LE, Milenkovic L, Stearns T, Moerner WE. Revealing Nanoscale Morphology of the Primary Cilium Using Super-Resolution Fluorescence Microscopy. Biophys J 2018; 116:319-329. [PMID: 30598282 PMCID: PMC6349968 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2018.11.3136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Revised: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Super-resolution (SR) microscopy has been used to observe structural details beyond the diffraction limit of ∼250 nm in a variety of biological and materials systems. By combining this imaging technique with both computer-vision algorithms and topological methods, we reveal and quantify the nanoscale morphology of the primary cilium, a tiny tubular cellular structure (∼2-6 μm long and 200-300 nm in diameter). The cilium in mammalian cells protrudes out of the plasma membrane and is important in many signaling processes related to cellular differentiation and disease. After tagging individual ciliary transmembrane proteins, specifically Smoothened, with single fluorescent labels in fixed cells, we use three-dimensional (3D) single-molecule SR microscopy to determine their positions with a precision of 10-25 nm. We gain a dense, pointillistic reconstruction of the surfaces of many cilia, revealing large heterogeneity in membrane shape. A Poisson surface reconstruction algorithm generates a fine surface mesh, allowing us to characterize the presence of deformations by quantifying the surface curvature. Upon impairment of intracellular cargo transport machinery by genetic knockout or small-molecule treatment of cells, our quantitative curvature analysis shows significant morphological differences not visible by conventional fluorescence microscopy techniques. Furthermore, using a complementary SR technique, two-color, two-dimensional stimulated emission depletion microscopy, we find that the cytoskeleton in the cilium, the axoneme, also exhibits abnormal morphology in the mutant cells, similar to our 3D results on the Smoothened-measured ciliary surface. Our work combines 3D SR microscopy and computational tools to quantitatively characterize morphological changes of the primary cilium under different treatments and uses stimulated emission depletion to discover correlated changes in the underlying structure. This approach can be useful for studying other biological or nanoscale structures of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Yoon
- Department of Applied Physics, Stanford University, Stanford, California; Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Colin J Comerci
- Biophysics Program, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Lucien E Weiss
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | | | - Tim Stearns
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - W E Moerner
- Department of Applied Physics, Stanford University, Stanford, California; Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California.
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Kabbani AM, Woodward X, Kelly CV. Revealing the Effects of Nanoscale Membrane Curvature on Lipid Mobility. MEMBRANES 2017; 7:membranes7040060. [PMID: 29057801 PMCID: PMC5746819 DOI: 10.3390/membranes7040060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2017] [Revised: 09/29/2017] [Accepted: 10/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances in nanoengineering and super-resolution microscopy have enabled new capabilities for creating and observing membrane curvature. However, the effects of curvature on single-lipid diffusion have yet to be revealed. The simulations presented here describe the capabilities of varying experimental methods for revealing the effects of nanoscale curvature on single-molecule mobility. Traditionally, lipid mobility is revealed through fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP), fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS), and single particle tracking (SPT). However, these techniques vary greatly in their ability to detect the effects of nanoscale curvature on lipid behavior. Traditionally, FRAP and FCS depend on diffraction-limited illumination and detection. A simulation of FRAP shows minimal effects on lipids diffusion due to a 50 nm radius membrane bud. Throughout the stages of the budding process, FRAP detected minimal changes in lipid recovery time due to the curvature versus flat membrane. Simulated FCS demonstrated small effects due to a 50 nm radius membrane bud that was more apparent with curvature-dependent lipid mobility changes. However, SPT achieves a sub-diffraction-limited resolution of membrane budding and lipid mobility through the identification of the single-lipid positions with ≤15 nm spatial and ≤20 ms temporal resolution. By mapping the single-lipid step lengths to locations on the membrane, the effects of membrane topography and curvature could be correlated to the effective membrane viscosity. Single-fluorophore localization techniques, such SPT, can detect membrane curvature and its effects on lipid behavior. These simulations and discussion provide a guideline for optimizing the experimental procedures in revealing the effects of curvature on lipid mobility and effective local membrane viscosity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abir Maarouf Kabbani
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48201, USA.
| | - Xinxin Woodward
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48201, USA.
| | - Christopher V Kelly
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48201, USA.
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6
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Wang W, Situ G. Interferometric rotating point spread function. Sci Rep 2017; 7:5882. [PMID: 28725033 PMCID: PMC5517474 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-06203-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2017] [Accepted: 06/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Rotating point spread functions (PSF), such as the double helix (DH) PSF, are widely used in localization-based super-resolution imaging because of their large working depth range. In this article, we propose an interferometric DH PSF (iDH PSF) using two opposed objective lenses as in the 4Pi microscope. In the proposed iDH PSF, the super-resolution in the axial PSF is transferred to the azimuthal rotation. Moreover, we design an iDH PSF whose imaging range reaches 3 μm, which is roughly 3 times as much as that which can be obtained by using other interferometric localization-based super-resolution imaging methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wang
- Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201800, China
| | - Guohai Situ
- Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201800, China. .,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
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7
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von Diezmann A, Shechtman Y, Moerner WE. Three-Dimensional Localization of Single Molecules for Super-Resolution Imaging and Single-Particle Tracking. Chem Rev 2017; 117:7244-7275. [PMID: 28151646 PMCID: PMC5471132 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 252] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Single-molecule super-resolution fluorescence microscopy and single-particle tracking are two imaging modalities that illuminate the properties of cells and materials on spatial scales down to tens of nanometers or with dynamical information about nanoscale particle motion in the millisecond range, respectively. These methods generally use wide-field microscopes and two-dimensional camera detectors to localize molecules to much higher precision than the diffraction limit. Given the limited total photons available from each single-molecule label, both modalities require careful mathematical analysis and image processing. Much more information can be obtained about the system under study by extending to three-dimensional (3D) single-molecule localization: without this capability, visualization of structures or motions extending in the axial direction can easily be missed or confused, compromising scientific understanding. A variety of methods for obtaining both 3D super-resolution images and 3D tracking information have been devised, each with their own strengths and weaknesses. These include imaging of multiple focal planes, point-spread-function engineering, and interferometric detection. These methods may be compared based on their ability to provide accurate and precise position information on single-molecule emitters with limited photons. To successfully apply and further develop these methods, it is essential to consider many practical concerns, including the effects of optical aberrations, field dependence in the imaging system, fluorophore labeling density, and registration between different color channels. Selected examples of 3D super-resolution imaging and tracking are described for illustration from a variety of biological contexts and with a variety of methods, demonstrating the power of 3D localization for understanding complex systems.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yoav Shechtman
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - W. E. Moerner
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
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8
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Zhang M, Chen J, Tian Z, Wang H. Reply to the 'Comment on "Magnetic-field-enabled resolution enhancement in super-resolution imaging"' by Bergmann et al., Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 2017, 19, DOI:10.1039/C6CP05108A. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2017; 19:4891-4892. [PMID: 28116370 DOI: 10.1039/c6cp06510d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
By ensemble and single molecule experiments, we confirmed that the magnetic field unequivocally exerted a positive effect on the fluorescence of dyes in dSTORM imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, 130022, China.
| | - Junling Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, 130022, China.
| | - Zhiyuan Tian
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
| | - Hongda Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, 130022, China.
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9
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Zeng Z, Xi P. Advances in three-dimensional super-resolution nanoscopy. Microsc Res Tech 2016; 79:893-898. [DOI: 10.1002/jemt.22719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2016] [Revised: 05/18/2016] [Accepted: 06/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhiping Zeng
- Department of Biomedical Engineering; College of Engineering, Peking University; Beijing 100871 China
| | - Peng Xi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering; College of Engineering, Peking University; Beijing 100871 China
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10
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Mathai PP, Liddle JA, Stavis SM. Optical tracking of nanoscale particles in microscale environments. APPLIED PHYSICS REVIEWS 2016; 3:011105. [PMID: 27213022 PMCID: PMC4873777 DOI: 10.1063/1.4941675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The trajectories of nanoscale particles through microscale environments record useful information about both the particles and the environments. Optical microscopes provide efficient access to this information through measurements of light in the far field from nanoparticles. Such measurements necessarily involve trade-offs in tracking capabilities. This article presents a measurement framework, based on information theory, that facilitates a more systematic understanding of such trade-offs to rationally design tracking systems for diverse applications. This framework includes the degrees of freedom of optical microscopes, which determine the limitations of tracking measurements in theory. In the laboratory, tracking systems are assemblies of sources and sensors, optics and stages, and nanoparticle emitters. The combined characteristics of such systems determine the limitations of tracking measurements in practice. This article reviews this tracking hardware with a focus on the essential functions of nanoparticles as optical emitters and microenvironmental probes. Within these theoretical and practical limitations, experimentalists have implemented a variety of tracking systems with different capabilities. This article reviews a selection of apparatuses and techniques for tracking multiple and single particles by tuning illumination and detection, and by using feedback and confinement to improve the measurements. Prior information is also useful in many tracking systems and measurements, which apply across a broad spectrum of science and technology. In the context of the framework and review of apparatuses and techniques, this article reviews a selection of applications, with particle diffusion serving as a prelude to tracking measurements in biological, fluid, and material systems, fabrication and assembly processes, and engineered devices. In so doing, this review identifies trends and gaps in particle tracking that might influence future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- P P Mathai
- Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, USA; Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
| | - J A Liddle
- Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, USA
| | - S M Stavis
- Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, USA
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Single-photon-multi-layer-interference lithography for high-aspect-ratio and three-dimensional SU-8 micro-/nanostructures. Sci Rep 2016; 6:18428. [PMID: 26725843 PMCID: PMC4698723 DOI: 10.1038/srep18428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2015] [Accepted: 11/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
We report microstructures of SU-8 photo-sensitive polymer with high-aspect-ratio, which is defined as the ratio of height to in-plane feature size. The highest aspect ratio achieved in this work exceeds 250. A multi-layer and single-photon lithography approach is used in this work to expose SU-8 photoresist of thickness up to 100 μm. Here, multi-layer and time-lapsed writing is the key concept that enables nanometer localised controlled photo-induced polymerisation. We use a converging monochromatic laser beam of 405 nm wavelength with a controllable aperture. The reflection of the converging optics from the silicon substrate underneath is responsible for a trapezoidal edge profile of SU-8 microstructure. The reflection induced interfered point-spread-function and multi-layer-single-photon exposure helps to achieve sub-wavelength feature sizes. We obtained a 75 nm tip diameter on a pyramid shaped microstructure. The converging beam profile determines the number of multiple optical focal planes along the depth of field. These focal planes are scanned and exposed non-concurrently with varying energy dosage. It is notable that an un-automated height axis control is sufficient for this method. All of these contribute to realising super-high-aspect-ratio and 3D micro-/nanostructures using SU-8. Finally, we also address the critical problems of photoresist-based micro-/nanofabrication and their solutions.
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Yang X, Xie H, Alonas E, Liu Y, Chen X, Santangelo PJ, Ren Q, Xi P, Jin D. Mirror-enhanced super-resolution microscopy. LIGHT, SCIENCE & APPLICATIONS 2016; 5. [PMID: 27398242 PMCID: PMC4936537 DOI: 10.1038/lsa.2016.134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Axial excitation confinement beyond the diffraction limit is crucial to the development of next-generation, super-resolution microscopy. STimulated Emission Depletion (STED) nanoscopy offers lateral super-resolution using a donut-beam depletion, but its axial resolution is still over 500 nm. Total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy is widely used for single-molecule localization, but its ability to detect molecules is limited to within the evanescent field of ~ 100 nm from the cell attachment surface. We find here that the axial thickness of the point spread function (PSF) during confocal excitation can be easily improved to 110 nm by replacing the microscopy slide with a mirror. The interference of the local electromagnetic field confined the confocal PSF to a 110-nm spot axially, which enables axial super-resolution with all laser-scanning microscopes. Axial sectioning can be obtained with wavelength modulation or by controlling the spacer between the mirror and the specimen. With no additional complexity, the mirror-assisted excitation confinement enhanced the axial resolution six-fold and the lateral resolution two-fold for STED, which together achieved 19-nm resolution to resolve the inner rim of a nuclear pore complex and to discriminate the contents of 120 nm viral filaments. The ability to increase the lateral resolution and decrease the thickness of an axial section using mirror-enhanced STED without increasing the laser power is of great importance for imaging biological specimens, which cannot tolerate high laser power.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xusan Yang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, Peking University, No. 5 Yiheyuan Road, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Hao Xie
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, Peking University, No. 5 Yiheyuan Road, Beijing 100871, China
- Wallace H Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Eric Alonas
- Wallace H Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Yujia Liu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, Peking University, No. 5 Yiheyuan Road, Beijing 100871, China
- Advanced Cytometry Labs, ARC Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale BioPhotonics (CNBP), Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Xuanze Chen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, Peking University, No. 5 Yiheyuan Road, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Philip J Santangelo
- Wallace H Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Qiushi Ren
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, Peking University, No. 5 Yiheyuan Road, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Peng Xi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, Peking University, No. 5 Yiheyuan Road, Beijing 100871, China
- Wallace H Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
- Advanced Cytometry Labs, ARC Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale BioPhotonics (CNBP), Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
- Institute for Biomedical Materials and Devices (IBMD), Faculty of Science, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia
| | - Dayong Jin
- Advanced Cytometry Labs, ARC Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale BioPhotonics (CNBP), Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
- Institute for Biomedical Materials and Devices (IBMD), Faculty of Science, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia
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