Normalized-constraint algorithm for minimizing inter-parameter crosstalk in DC optical tomography

Diffuse optical tomography for breast cancer imaging guided by computed tomography: A feasibility study

Diffuse optical tomography (DOT) has attracted attentions in the last two decades due to its intrinsic sensitivity in imaging chromophores of tissues such as hemoglobin, water, and lipid. However, DOT has not been clinically accepted yet due to its low spatial resolution caused by strong optical scattering in tissues. Structural guidance provided by an anatomical imaging modality enhances the DOT imaging substantially. Here, we propose a computed tomography (CT) guided multispectral DOT imaging system for breast cancer imaging. To validate its feasibility, we have built a prototype DOT imaging system which consists of a laser at the wavelength of 650 nm and an electron multiplying charge coupled device (EMCCD) camera. We have validated the CT guided DOT reconstruction algorithms with numerical simulations and phantom experiments, in which different imaging setup parameters, such as projection number of measurements and width of measurement patch, have been investigated. Our results indicate that an air-cooling EMCCD camera is good enough for the transmission mode DOT imaging. We have also found that measurements at six angular projections are sufficient for DOT to reconstruct the optical targets with 2 and 4 times absorption contrast when the CT guidance is applied. Finally, we have described our future research plan on integration of a multispectral DOT imaging system into a breast CT scanner.

Reproducibility of parameters of postocclusive reactive hyperemia measured by diffuse optical tomography

The application of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) to assess microvascular function has shown promising results. An important limitation when using a single source-detector pair, however, is the lack of depth sensitivity. Diffuse optical tomography (DOT) overcomes this limitation using an array of sources and detectors that allow the reconstruction of volumetric hemodynamic changes. This study compares the key parameters of postocclusive reactive hyperemia measured in the forearm using standard NIRS and DOT. We show that while the mean parameter values are similar for the two techniques, DOT achieves much better reproducibility, as measured by the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). We show that DOT achieves high reproducibility for muscle oxygen consumption (ICC: 0.99), time to maximal HbO2 (ICC: 0.94), maximal HbO2 (ICC: 0.99), and time to maximal HbT (ICC: 0.99). Absolute reproducibility as measured by the standard error of measurement is consistently smaller and close to zero (ideal value) across all parameters measured by DOT compared to NIRS. We conclude that DOT provides a more robust characterization of the reactive hyperemic response and show how the availability of volumetric hemodynamic changes allows the identification of areas of temporal consistency, which could help characterize more precisely the microvasculature.

Joint sparsity-driven non-iterative simultaneous reconstruction of absorption and scattering in diffuse optical tomography

Some optical properties of a highly scattering medium, such as tissue, can be reconstructed non-invasively by diffuse optical tomography (DOT). Since the inverse problem of DOT is severely ill-posed and nonlinear, iterative methods that update Green's function have been widely used to recover accurate optical parameters. However, recent research has shown that the joint sparse recovery principle can provide an important clue in achieving reconstructions without an iterative update of Green's function. One of the main limitations of the previous work is that it can only be applied to absorption parameter reconstruction. In this paper, we extended this theory to estimate the absorption and scattering parameters simultaneously when the background optical properties are known. The main idea for such an extension is that a joint sparse recovery step gives us unknown fluence on the estimated support set, which eliminates the nonlinearity in an integral equation for the simultaneous estimation of the optical parameters. Our numerical results show that the proposed algorithm reduces the cross-talk artifacts between the parameters and provides improved reconstruction results compared to existing methods.

Implementation of edge-preserving regularization for frequency-domain diffuse optical tomography

In this study, we first propose the use of edge-preserving regularization in optimizing an ill-conditioned problem in the reconstruction procedure for diffuse optical tomography to prevent unwanted edge smoothing, which usually degrades the attributes of images for distinguishing tumors from background tissues when using Tikhonov regularization. In the edge-preserving regularization method presented here, a potential function with edge-preserving properties is introduced as a regularized term in an objective function. With the minimization of this proposed objective function, an iterative method to solve this optimization problem is presented in which half-quadratic regularization is introduced to simplify the minimization task. Both numerical and experimental data are employed to justify the proposed technique. The reconstruction results indicate that edge-preserving regularization provides a superior performance over Tikhonov regularization.

Somatosensory activation of two fingers can be discriminated with ultrahigh-density diffuse optical tomography

Topographic non-invasive near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) has become a well-established tool for functional brain imaging. Applying up to 100 optodes over the head of a subject, allows achieving a spatial resolution in the centimeter range. This resolution is poor compared to other functional imaging tools. However, recently it was shown that diffuse optical tomography (DOT) as an extension of NIRS based on high-density (HD) probe arrays and supplemented by an advanced image reconstruction procedure allows describing activation patterns with a spatial resolution in the millimeter range. Building on these findings, we hypothesize that HD-DOT may render very focal activations accessible which would be missed by the traditionally used sparse arrays. We examined activation patterns in the primary somatosensory cortex, since its somatotopic organization is very fine-grained. We performed a vibrotactile stimulation study of the first and fifth finger in eight human subjects, using a 900-channel continuous-wave DOT imaging system for achieving a higher resolution than conventional topographic NIRS. To compare the results to a well-established high-resolution imaging technique, the same paradigm was investigated in the same subjects by means of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). In this work, we tested the advantage of ultrahigh-density probe arrays and show that highly focal activations would be missed by classical next-nearest neighbor NIRS approach, but also by DOT, when using a sparse probe array. Distinct activation patterns for both fingers correlated well with the expected neuroanatomy in five of eight subjects. Additionally we show that activation for different fingers is projected to different tissue depths in the DOT image. Comparison to the fMRI data yielded similar activation foci in seven out of ten finger representations in these five subjects when comparing the lateral localization of DOT and fMRI results.

Direct-current-based image reconstruction versus direct-current included or excluded frequency-domain reconstruction in diffuse optical tomography

We study the level of image artifacts in optical tomography associated with measurement uncertainty under three reconstruction configurations, namely, by using only direct-current (DC), DC-excluded frequency-domain, and DC-included frequency-domain data. Analytic and synthetic studies demonstrate that, at the same level of measurement uncertainty typical to optical tomography, the ratio of the standard deviation of mu(a) over mu(a) reconstructed by DC only is at least 1.4 times lower than that by frequency-domain methods. The ratio of standard deviations of D (or mu(s)') over D (or mu(s)') reconstructed by DC only are slightly lower than those by frequency-domain methods. Frequency-domain reconstruction including DC generally outperforms that excluding DC, but as the amount of measurements increases, the difference between the two diminishes. Under the condition of a priori structural information, the performances of three reconstruction configurations are seemingly equivalent.

Nonlinear reconstruction of absorption and fluorescence contrast from measured diffuse transmittance and reflectance of a compressed-breast-simulating phantom

We report on the nonlinear reconstruction of local absorption and fluorescence contrast in tissuelike scattering media from measured time-domain diffuse reflectance and transmittance of laser as well as laser-excited fluorescence radiation. Measurements were taken at selected source-detector offsets using slablike diffusely scattering and fluorescent phantoms containing fluorescent heterogeneities. Such measurements simulate in vivo data that would be obtained employing a scanning, time-domain fluorescence mammograph, where the breast is gently compressed between two parallel glass plates, and source and detector optical fibers scan synchronously at various source-detector offsets, allowing the recording of laser and fluorescence mammograms. The diffusion equations modeling the propagation of the laser and fluorescence radiation were solved in frequency domain by the finite element method simultaneously for several modulation frequencies using Fourier transformation and preprocessed experimental data. To reconstruct the concentration of the fluorescent contrast agent, the Born approximation including higher-order reconstructed photon densities at the excitation wavelength was used. Axial resolution was determined that can be achieved by various detection schemes. We show that remission measurements increase the depth resolution significantly.

Depth sensitivity and image reconstruction analysis of dense imaging arrays for mapping brain function with diffuse optical tomography

The development of diffuse optical tomography (DOT) instrumentation for neuroimaging of humans is challenging due to the large size and the geometry of the head and the desire to distinguish signals at different depths. One approach to this problem is to use dense imaging arrays that incorporate measurements at different source-detector distances. We previously developed a high-density DOT system that is able to obtain retinotopic measurements in agreement with functional magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography. Further extension of high-density DOT neuroimaging necessitates a thorough study of the measurement and imaging sensitivity that incorporates the complex geometry of the head--including the head curvature and layered tissue structure. We present numerical simulations using a finite element model of the adult head to study the sensitivity of the measured signal as a function of the imaging array and data sampling strategy. Specifically, we quantify the imaging sensitivity available within the brain (including depths beyond superficial cortical gyri) as a function of increasing the maximum source-detector separation included in the data. Through the use of depth related sensitivity analysis, it is shown that for a rectangular grid [with 1.3 cm first nearest neighbor (NN) spacing], second NN measurements are sufficient to record absorption changes along the surface of the brain's cortical gyri (brain tissue depth <5 mm). The use of fourth and fifth NN measurements would permit imaging down into the cortical sulci (brain tissue depth >15 mm).

Choice of data types in time resolved fluorescence enhanced diffuse optical tomography

In this paper we examine possible data types for time resolved fluorescence enhanced diffuse optical tomography (FDOT). FDOT is a particular case of diffuse optical tomography, where our goal is to analyze fluorophores deeply embedded in a turbid medium. We focus on the relative robustness of the different sets of data types to noise. We use an analytical model to generate the expected temporal point spread function (TPSF) and generate the data types from this. Varying levels of noise are applied to the TPSF before generating the data types. We show that local data types are more robust to noise than global data types, and should provide enhanced information to the inverse problem. We go on to show that with a simple reconstruction algorithm, depth and lifetime (the parameters of interest) of the fluorophore are better reconstructed using the local data types. Further we show that the relationship between depth and lifetime is better preserved for the local data types, suggesting they are in some way not only more robust, but also self-regularizing. We conclude that while the local data types may be more expensive to generate in the general case, they do offer clear advantages over the standard global data types.

Quantitative diffuse optical tomography for small animals using an ultrafast gated image intensifier

The quantitative accuracy of fluorescence and bioluminescence imaging of small animals can be improved by knowledge of the in situ optical properties of each animal. Obtaining in situ optical property maps is challenging, however, due to short propagation distances, requirements for high dynamic range, and the need for dense spatial, temporal, and spectral sampling. Using an ultrafast gated image intensifier and a pulsed laser source, we have developed a small animal diffuse optical tomography system with multiple synthetic modulation frequencies up to >1 GHz. We show that amplitude and phase measurements with useful contrast-to-noise ratios can be obtained for modulation frequencies over the range of approximately 250 to 1250 MHz. Experiments with tissue simulating phantoms demonstrate the feasibility of reconstructing the absorption and scattering optical properties in a small animal imaging system.

Time-resolved diffuse optical tomography and its application to in vitro and in vivo imaging

This work reviews our research during the past several years on time-resolved (TR) near-infrared diffuse optical tomography (DOT). Following an introduction of the measuring modes, two proposed schemes of image reconstruction in TR-DOT are described: one utilizes the full TR data, and the other, referred to as the modified generalized pulse spectrum technique (GPST), uses the featured data extracted from the TR measurement. The performances of the two algorithms in quantitativeness and spatial resolution are comparatively investigated with 2-D simulated data. TR-DOT images are then presented for phantom experiments, which are obtained by using a 16-channel time-correlated single photon counting system, and the factors affecting the quantification of the reconstruction are discussed. Finally, in vitro and in vivo imaging examples are illustrated for validating the capibility of TR-DOT to provide not only the anatomical but also the physiological information of the objects.

Image correction scheme applied to functional diffuse optical tomography scattering images

We have extended our investigation on the use of a linear algorithm for enhancing the accuracy of diffuse optical tomography (DOT) images, to include spatial maps of the diffusion coefficient. The results show that the corrected images are markedly improved in terms of estimated size, spatial resolution, two-object resolving power, and quantitative accuracy. These image-enhancing effects are significant at expected levels of diffusion-coefficient contrast in tissue and noise levels typical of experimental DOT data. Overall, the types and magnitudes of image-enhancing effects obtained here are qualitatively similar to those seen in previous studies on mu(a) perturbations. The implications for practical implementations of DOT time-series imaging are discussed.

Image correction algorithm for functional three-dimensional diffuse optical tomography brain imaging

We outline a computationally efficient image correction algorithm, which we have applied to diffuse optical tomography (DOT) image time series derived from a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-based brain model. Results show that the algorithm increases spatial resolution, decreases spatial bias, and only modestly reduces temporal accuracy for noise levels typically seen in experiment, and produces results comparable to image reconstructions that incorporate information from MRI priors. We demonstrate that this algorithm has robust performance in the presence of noise, background heterogeneity, irregular external and internal boundaries, and error in the initial guess. However, the algorithm introduces artifacts when the absorption and scattering coefficients of the reference medium are overestimated--a situation that is easily avoided in practice. The considered algorithm offers a practical approach to improving the quality of images from time-series DOT, even without the use of MRI priors.

Multispectral breast imaging using a ten-wavelength, 64 x 64 source/detector channels silicon photodiode-based diffuse optical tomography system

We describe a compact diffuse optical tomography system specifically designed for breast imaging. The system consists of 64 silicon photodiode detectors, 64 excitation points, and 10 diode lasers in the near-infrared region, allowing multispectral, three-dimensional optical imaging of breast tissue. We also detail the system performance and optimization through a calibration procedure. The system is evaluated using tissue-like phantom experiments and an in vivo clinic experiment. Quantitative two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) images of absorption and reduced scattering coefficients are obtained from these experiments. The ten-wavelength spectra of the extracted reduced scattering coefficient enable quantitative morphological images to be reconstructed with this system. From the in vivo clinic experiment, functional images including deoxyhemoglobin, oxyhemoglobin, and water concentration are recovered and tumors are detected with correct size and position compared with the mammography.

In vitro determination of normal and neoplastic human brain tissue optical properties using inverse adding-doubling

To complement a project towards the development of real-time optical biopsy for brain tissue discrimination and surgical resection guidance, the optical properties of various brain tissues were measured in vitro and correlated to features within clinical diffuse reflectance tissue spectra measured in vivo. Reflectance and transmission spectra of in vitro brain tissue samples were measured with a single-integrating-sphere spectrometer for wavelengths 400-1300 nm and converted to absorption and reduced scattering spectra using an inverse adding-doubling technique. Optical property spectra were classified as deriving from white matter, grey matter or glioma tissue according to histopathologic diagnosis, and mean absorption and reduced scattering spectra were calculated for the three tissue categories. Absolute reduced scattering and absorption values and their relative differences between histopathological groups agreed with previously reported results with the exception that absorption coefficients were often overestimated, most likely due to biologic variability or unaccounted light loss during reflectance/transmission measurement. Absorption spectra for the three tissue classes were dominated by haemoglobin absorption below 600 nm and water absorption above 900 nm and generally determined the shape of corresponding clinical diffuse reflectance spectra. Reduced scattering spectral shapes followed the power curve predicted by the Rayleigh limit of Mie scattering theory. While tissue absorption governed the shape of clinical diffuse reflectance spectra, reduced scattering determined their relative emission intensities between the three tissue categories.

Image quality improvement via spatial deconvolution in optical tomography: time-series imaging

We present the fourth in a series of studies devoted to the issue of improving image quality in diffuse optical tomography (DOT) by using a spatial deconvolution operation that seeks to compensate for the information-blurring property of first-order perturbation algorithms. Our earlier reports consider only static target media. Here we report spatial deconvolution applied to media with time-varying optical properties, as a model of tissue dynamics resulting from varying metabolic demand and modulation of the vascular bed. Issues under study include the influence of deconvolution on the accuracy of the recovered temporal and spatial information. The impact of noise is also explored, and techniques for ameliorating its information-degrading effects are examined. At low noise levels (i.e, < or = 5% of the time-varying signal amplitude), spatial deconvolution markedly improves the accuracy of recovered information. Temporal information is more seriously degraded by noise than is spatial information, and the impact of noise increases with the complexity of the time-varying signal. These effects, however, can be significantly reduced using simple noise suppression techniques (e.g., low-pass filtering). Results suggest that the deconvolution scheme should provide considerable enhancement of the quality of spatiotemporal information recovered from dynamic DOT techniques applied to tissue studies.

Linear and nonlinear reconstruction for optical tomography of phantoms with nonscattering regions

Most research in optical imaging incorrectly assumes that light transport in nonscattering regions in the head may be modeled by use of the diffusion approximation. The effect of this assumption is examined in a series of experiments on tissue-equivalent phantoms. Images from cylindrical and head-shaped phantoms with and without clear regions [simulating the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) filled ventricles] and a clear layer (simulating the CSF layer surrounding the brain) are reconstructed with linear and nonlinear reconstruction techniques. The results suggest that absorbing and scattering perturbations can be identified reliably with nonlinear reconstruction methods when the clear regions are also present in the reference data but that the quality of the image degrades considerably if the reference data does not contain these features. Linear reconstruction performs similarly to nonlinear reconstruction, provided the clear regions are present in the reference data, but otherwise linear reconstruction fails. This study supports the use of linear reconstruction for dynamic imaging but suggests that, in all cases, image quality is likely to improve if the clear regions are modeled correctly.

Recent advances in diffuse optical imaging

We review the current state-of-the-art of diffuse optical imaging, which is an emerging technique for functional imaging of biological tissue. It involves generating images using measurements of visible or near-infrared light scattered across large (greater than several centimetres) thicknesses of tissue. We discuss recent advances in experimental methods and instrumentation, and examine new theoretical techniques applied to modelling and image reconstruction. We review recent work on in vivo applications including imaging the breast and brain, and examine future challenges.

Improved accuracy of reconstructed diffuse optical tomographic images by means of spatial deconvolution: two-dimensional quantitative characterization

Systematic characterization studies are presented, relating to a previously reported spatial deconvolution operation that seeks to compensate for the information-blurring property of first-order perturbation algorithms for diffuse optical tomography (DOT) image reconstruction. In simulation results that are presented, this deconvolution operation has been applied to two-dimensional DOT images reconstructed by solving a first-order perturbation equation. Under study was the effect on algorithm performance of control parameters in the measurement (number and spatial distribution of sources and detectors, presence of noise, and presence of systematic error), target (medium shape; and number, location, size, and contrast of inclusions), and computational (number of finite-element-method mesh nodes, length of filter-generating linear system, among others) parameter spaces associated with computation and the use of the deconvolution operators. Substantial improvements in reconstructed image quality, in terms of recovered inclusion location, size, and contrast, are found in all cases. A finding of practical importance is that the method is robust to appreciable differences between the optical coefficients of the media used for filter generation and those of the target media to which the filters are subsequently applied.

Diffuse optical tomography with spectral constraints and wavelength optimization

We present an algorithm that explicitly utilizes the wavelength dependence of tissue optical properties for diffuse optical tomography. We have previously shown that the method gives superior separation of absorption and scattering. Here the technique is described and tested in detail, and optimum wavelength sets for a broad range of chromophore combinations are discovered and analyzed.

Non-PET functional imaging techniques: optical

The strong and steady development of diffuse optical spectroscopy and tomography as new biomedical optics technologies promises to bring these optical techniques into clinical practice. This article provides a brief review of the light-tissue interaction, the instrumentation, and the theory relevant to this field. This is followed by a survey of the three main applications: brain imaging, muscle imaging, and breast imaging. Lastly, the future outlook of the technology is presented, highlighting the new promises based on recent breakthroughs.

Optical tomographic imaging of small animals

Diffuse optical tomography is emerging as a viable new biomedical imaging modality. Using visible and near-infrared light this technique can probe the absorption and scattering properties of biological tissues. The main applications are currently in brain, breast, limb and joint imaging; however, optical tomographic imaging of small animals is attracting increasing attention. This interest is fuelled by recent advances in the transgenic manipulation of small animals that has led to many models of human disease. In addition, an ever increasing number of optically reactive biochemical markers has become available, which allow diseases to be detected at the molecular level long before macroscopic symptoms appear. The past three years have seen an array of novel technological developments that have led to the first optical tomographic studies of small animals in the areas of cerebral ischemia and cancer.

Three-dimensional optical tomographic brain imaging in small animals, part 1: hypercapnia

In this study, we explore the potential of diffuse optical tomography for brain oximetry. While several groups have already reported on the sensitivity of optical measurements to changes in oxyhemoglobin, deoxyhemoglobin, and blood volume, these studies were often limited to single source-detector geometries or topographic maps, where signals obtained from within the brain are projected onto 2-D surface maps. In this two-part study, we report on our efforts toward developing a volumetric optical imaging system that allows one to spatially resolve 3-D hemodynamic effects in rat brains. In part 1, we describe the instrumentation, optical probe design, and the model-based iterative image reconstruction algorithm employed in this work. Consideration of how a priori anatomical knowledge can be incorporated in the reconstruction process is presented. This system is then used to monitor global hemodynamic changes that occur in the brain under various degrees of hypercapnia. The physiologic cerebral response to hypercapnia is well known and therefore allows an initial performance assessment of the imaging system. As expected, we observe global changes in blood volume and oxygenation, which vary linearly as a function of the concentration of the inspired carbon dioxide. Furthermore, experiments are designed to determine the sensitivity of the reconstructions of only 1 mm to inaccurate probe positioning. We determine that shifts can significantly influence the reconstructions. In part 2 we focus on more local hemodynamic changes that occur during unilateral carotid occlusion performed at lower-than-normal systemic blood pressure. In this case, the occlusion leads to a predominantly monohemispherically localized effect, which is well described in the literature. Having explored the system with a well-characterized physiologic effect, we investigate and discuss the complex compensatory cerebrovascular hemodynamics that occur at normotensive blood pressure. Overall, these studies demonstrate the potential and limitations of our diffuse optical imager for visualizing global and focal hemodynamic phenomenon three dimensionally in the brains of small animals.

Diffuse optical tomography with physiological and spatiala prioriconstraints

Diffuse optical tomography is a typical inverse problem plagued by ill-condition. To overcome this drawback, regularization or constraining techniques are incorporated in the inverse formulation. In this work, we investigate the enhancement in recovering functional parameters by using physiological and spatial a priori constraints. More accurate recovery of the two main functional parameters that are the blood volume and the relative saturation is demonstrated through simulations by using our method compared to actual techniques.

Imaging changes in blood volume and oxygenation in the newborn infant brain using three-dimensional optical tomography

Induced haemodynamic and blood oxygenation changes occurring within the brain of a ventilated newborn infant have been imaged in three dimensions using optical tomography. Noninvasive measurements of the flight times of transmitted light were acquired during illumination of the brain by laser pulses at wavelengths of 780 nm and 815 nm. The oxygen and carbon dioxide partial pressures were adjusted through alterations to the ventilator settings, resulting in changes to the cerebral blood volume and oxygenation. Three-dimensional images were generated using the physiologically associated differences in the measured data, obviating the need for data calibration using a separate reference measurement. The results exhibit large changes in absorption coefficient at both wavelengths. Images corresponding to differences in concentrations of oxy- and deoxyhaemoglobin are in qualitative agreement with known physiological data.

Sagittal laser optical tomography for imaging of rheumatoid finger joints

We present a novel optical tomographic imaging system that was designed to determine two-dimensional spatial distribution of optical properties in a sagittal plane through finger joints. The system incorporates a single laser diode and a single silicon photodetector into a scanning device that records spatially resolved light intensities as they are transmitted through a finger. These data are input to a model-based iterative image reconstruction (MOBIIR) scheme, which uses the equation of radiative transfer (ERT) as a forward model for light propagation through tissue. We have used this system to obtain tomographic images of six proximal interphalangeal finger joints from two patients with rheumatoid arthritis. The optical images were compared to clinical symptoms and ultrasound images.

Optical tomographic mapping of cerebral haemodynamics by means of time-domain detection: methodology and phantom validation

One of the primary applications of diffuse optical imaging is to localize and quantify the changes in the cerebral oxygenation during functional brain activation. Up to now, data from an optical imager are simply presented as a two-dimensional (2D) topographic map using the modified Beer-Lambert law that assumes homogeneous optical properties beneath each optode. Due to the highly heterogeneous nature of the optical properties in the brain, the assumption is evidently invalid, leading to both low spatial resolution and inaccurate quantification in the assessment of haemodynamic changes. To cope with these difficulties, we propose a nonlinear tomographic image reconstruction algorithm for a two-layered slab geometry that uses time-resolved reflected light. The algorithm is based on the previously developed generalized pulse spectrum technique, and implemented within a semi-three-dimensional (3D) framework to conform to the topographic visualization and to reduce computational load. We demonstrate the advantages of the algorithm in quantifying simulated changes in haemoglobin concentrations and investigate its robustness to the uncertainties in the cortical structure and optical properties, as well as the effects of random noises on image quality. The methodology is also validated by experiments using a solid layered phantom.

Semi-three-dimensional algorithm for time-resolved diffuse optical tomography by use of the generalized pulse spectrum technique

Although a foil three-dimensional (3-D) reconstruction with both 3-D forward and inverse models provide, the optimal solution for diffuse optical tomography (DOT), because of the 3-D nature of photon diffusion in tissue, it is computationally costly for both memory requirement and execution time in a conventional computing environment. Thus in practice there is motivation to develop an image reconstruction algorithm with dimensional reduction based on some modeling approximations. Here we have implemented a semi-3-D modified generalized pulse spectrum technique for time-resolved DOT, where a two-dimensional (2-D) distribution of optical properties is approximately assumed, while we retain 3-D distribution of photon migration in tissue. We have validated the proposed algorithm by reconstructing 3-D structural test objects from both numerically simulated and experimental date. We demonstrate our algorithm by comparing it with the calibrated 2-D reconstruction that is in widespread use as a shortcut to 3-D imaging and proving that the semi-3-D algorithm outperforms the calibrated 2-D algorithm.

Absorption and scattering images of heterogeneous scattering media can be simultaneously reconstructed by use of dc data

We present a carefully designed phantom experimental study aimed to provide solid evidence that both absorption and scattering images of heterogeneous scattering media can be reconstructed independently from dc data. We also study the important absorption-scattering cross-talk issue. In this regard, we develop a simple normalizing scheme that is incorporated into our nonlinear finite-element-based reconstruction algorithm. Our results from the controlled phantom experiments show that the cross talk of an absorption object appearing in scattering images can be eliminated and that the cross talk of a scattering object appearing in absorption images can be reduced considerably. In addition, these carefully designed phantom experiments clearly suggest that both absorption and scattering images can be simultaneously recovered and quantitatively separated in highly scattering media by use of dc measurements. Finally, we discuss our results in light of recent theoretical findings on nonuniqueness for dc image reconstruction.

Imaging of spatiotemporal coincident states by DC optical tomography

The utility of optical tomography as a practical imaging modality has, thus far, been limited by its intrinsically low spatial resolution and quantitative accuracy. Recently, we have argued that a broad range of physiological phenomena might be accurately studied by adopting this technology to investigate dynamic states (Schmitz et al., 2000; Barbour et al., 2000; Graber et al., 2000; Barbour et aL, 2001; and Barbour et aL, 1999). One such phenomenon holding considerable significance is the dynamics of the vasculature, which has been well characterized as being both spatially and temporally heterogeneous. In this paper, we have modeled such heterogeneity in the limiting case of spatiotemporal coincident behavior involving optical contrast features, in an effort to define the expected limits with which dynamic states can be characterized using two newly described reconstruction methods that evaluate normalized detector data: the normalized difference method (NDM) and the normalized constraint method (NCM). Influencing the design of these studies is the expectation that spatially coincident temporal variations in both the absorption and scattering properties of tissue can occur in vivo. We have also chosen to model dc illumination techniques, in recognition of their favorable performance and cost for practical systems. This choice was made with full knowledge of theoretical findings arguing that separation of the optical absorption and scattering coefficients under these conditions is not possible. Results obtained show that the NDM algorithm provides for good spatial resolution and excellent characterization of the temporal behavior of optical properties but is subject to interparameter crosstalk. The NCM algorithm, while also providing excellent characterization of temporal behavior, provides for improved spatial resolution, as well as for improved separation of absorption and scattering coefficients. A discussion is provided to reconcile these findings with theoretical expectations.

Imaging of in vitro chicken leg using time-resolved near-infrared optical tomography

Near-infrared optical imaging gains much attention because of its noninvasiveness and deep penetration depths into tissue. Here, we report near-infrared optical tomographic imaging of an in vitro chicken leg from time-resolved measurements. The in vitro chicken leg, dipped in a cylindrical container filled with diluted Intralipid-10% solution, was imaged with a multichannel time-resolved imaging system. A two-dimensional reconstruction algorithm based on a modified generalized pulse spectrum technique has been developed to reconstruct the images of both the absorption and reduced scattering coefficients simultaneously and quickly. The results demonstrate that a simultaneous reconstruction of absorption and reduced scattering coefficients from time-resolved measurement has a potential to reveal the changes in the optical properties associated with not only the physiological information but also the anatomical structure of the organ.

Near-infrared optical imaging of the breast with model-based reconstruction

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES

Near-infrared diffuse optical imaging may offer enhanced contrast resolution over that of the existing technologies for detection and diagnosis of breast cancer. The authors report quantitative absorption and scattering images of the human breast with model-based reconstruction methods using near-infrared continuous-wave tomographic data.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An automatic, multichannel optical imaging system was used to image the breasts of nine women: four with infiltrating ductal carcinomas, one with infiltrating lobular carcinoma, one with fibroadenoma, and three control subjects with no breast lesion. The image reconstruction methods are centered on the finite element solution of photon diffusion in breast tissue.

RESULTS

Substantial contrast between tumor and adjacent parenchyma was observed. Images of the control subjects showed homogeneous optical features. In the six women with breast lesions, the locations and sizes of tumors imaged optically were accurate and consistent with the mammographic findings.

CONCLUSION

The results of this pilot study show that cancers as small as 5 mm can be quantitatively imaged. In addition, preliminary data from the scattering images suggest that benign and malignant tumors can be noninvasively differentiated with optical imaging.

Three-dimensional optical tomography of hemodynamics in the human head

We report on the first three-dimensional, volumetric, tomographic localization of vascular reactivity in the brain. To this end we developed a model-based iterative image reconstruction scheme that employs adjoint differentiation methods to minimize the difference between measured and predicted data. The necessary human-head geometry and optode locations were determined with a photogrammetric method. To illustrate the performance of the technique, the three-dimensional distribution of changes in the concentration of oxyhemoglobin, deoxyhemoglobin, and total hemoglobin during a Valsalva maneuver were visualized. The observed results are consistent with previously reported effects concerning optical responses to hemodynamic perturbations.