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Balani SB, Ghaffar SH, Chougan M, Pei E, Şahin E. Processes and materials used for direct writing technologies: A review. RESULTS IN ENGINEERING 2021; 11:100257. [DOI: https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2021.100257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/21/2023]
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Balani SB, Ghaffar SH, Chougan M, Pei E, Şahin E. Processes and materials used for direct writing technologies: A review. RESULTS IN ENGINEERING 2021; 11:100257. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rineng.2021.100257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/27/2023]
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Golvari P, Kuebler SM. Fabrication of Functional Microdevices in SU-8 by Multi-Photon Lithography. MICROMACHINES 2021; 12:472. [PMID: 33919437 PMCID: PMC8143355 DOI: 10.3390/mi12050472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Revised: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
This review surveys advances in the fabrication of functional microdevices by multi-photon lithography (MPL) using the SU-8 material system. Microdevices created by MPL in SU-8 have been key to progress in the fields of micro-fluidics, micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS), micro-robotics, and photonics. The review discusses components, properties, and processing of SU-8 within the context of MPL. Emphasis is focused on advances within the last five years, but the discussion also includes relevant developments outside this period in MPL and the processing of SU-8. Novel methods for improving resolution of MPL using SU-8 and discussed, along with methods for functionalizing structures after fabrication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pooria Golvari
- Chemistry Department, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, USA;
| | - Stephen M. Kuebler
- Chemistry Department, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, USA;
- CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, USA
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, USA
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Abstract
Multiphoton 3D lithography is becoming a tool of choice in a wide variety of fields. Regenerative medicine is one of them. Its true 3D structuring capabilities beyond diffraction can be exploited to produce structures with diverse functionality. Furthermore, these objects can be produced from unique materials allowing expanded performance. Here, we review current trends in this research area. We pay particular attention to the interplay between the technology and materials used. Thus, we extensively discuss undergoing light-matter interactions and peculiarities of setups needed to induce it. Then, we continue with the most popular resins, photoinitiators, and general material functionalization, with emphasis on their potential usage in regenerative medicine. Furthermore, we provide extensive discussion of current advances in the field as well as prospects showing how the correct choice of the polymer can play a vital role in the structure’s functionality. Overall, this review highlights the interplay between the structure’s architecture and material choice when trying to achieve the maximum result in the field of regenerative medicine.
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Ummethala G, Jaiswal A, Chaudhary RP, Hawal S, Saxena S, Shukla S. Localized polymerization using single photon photoinitiators in two-photon process for fabricating subwavelength structures. POLYMER 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2017.04.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Chaudhary RP, Ummethala G, Jaiswal A, Hawal S, Saxena S, Shukla S. One-step, subwavelength patterning of plasmonic gratings in metal–polymer composites. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra22604c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Two photon patterning of sub-wavelength resolved metallic nanostructures using single photon absorbing photo initiator.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. P. Chaudhary
- Nanostructures Engineering and Modeling Laboratory
- Department of Metallurgical Engineering and Materials Science
- Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
- Mumbai
- India 400076
| | - G. Ummethala
- Nanostructures Engineering and Modeling Laboratory
- Department of Metallurgical Engineering and Materials Science
- Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
- Mumbai
- India 400076
| | - A. Jaiswal
- Nanostructures Engineering and Modeling Laboratory
- Department of Metallurgical Engineering and Materials Science
- Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
- Mumbai
- India 400076
| | - S. Hawal
- Nanostructures Engineering and Modeling Laboratory
- Department of Metallurgical Engineering and Materials Science
- Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
- Mumbai
- India 400076
| | - S. Saxena
- Nanostructures Engineering and Modeling Laboratory
- Department of Metallurgical Engineering and Materials Science
- Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
- Mumbai
- India 400076
| | - S. Shukla
- Nanostructures Engineering and Modeling Laboratory
- Department of Metallurgical Engineering and Materials Science
- Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
- Mumbai
- India 400076
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Do MT, Nguyen TTN, Li Q, Benisty H, Ledoux-Rak I, Lai ND. Submicrometer 3D structures fabrication enabled by one-photon absorption direct laser writing. OPTICS EXPRESS 2013; 21:20964-20973. [PMID: 24103969 DOI: 10.1364/oe.21.020964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate a new 3D fabrication method to achieve the same results as those obtained by the two-photon excitation technique, by using a simple one-photon elaboration method in a very low absorption regime. Desirable 2D and 3D submicrometric structures, such as spiral, chiral, and woodpile architectures, with feature size as small as 190 nm have been fabricated, by using just a few milliwatts of a continuous-wave laser at 532 nm and a commercial SU8 photoresist. Different aspects of the direct laser writing based on ultralow one-photon absorption (LOPA) technique are investigated and compared with the TPA technique, showing several advantages, such as simplicity and low cost.
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Ueno K, Misawa H. Surface plasmon-enhanced photochemical reactions. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY C-PHOTOCHEMISTRY REVIEWS 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochemrev.2013.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Singer JP, Lee JH, Kooi SE, Thomas EL. Rapid fabrication of 3D terahertz split ring resonator arrays by novel single-shot direct write focused proximity field nanopatterning. OPTICS EXPRESS 2012; 20:11097-11108. [PMID: 22565733 DOI: 10.1364/oe.20.011097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
For the next generation of phoXonic, plasmonic, opto-mechanical and microfluidic devices, the capability to create 3D microstructures is highly desirable. Fabrication of such structures by conventional top-down techniques generally requires multiple time-consuming steps and is limited in the ability to define features spanning multiple layers at prescribed angles. 3D direct write lithography (3DDW) has the capability to draw nearly arbitrary structures, but is an inherently slow serial writing process. Here we present a method, denoted focused proximity field nanopatterning (FPnP), that combines 3DDW with single or multiphoton interference lithography (IL). By exposing a thick photoresist layer having a phase mask pattern imprinted on its surface with a tightly focused laser beam, we produce locally unique complex structures. The morphology can be varied based on beam and mask parameters. Patterns may be written rapidly in a single shot mode with arbitrary positions defined by the direct write, thus exploiting the control of 3DDW with the enhanced speed of phase mask IL. Here we show the ability for this technique to rapidly produce arrays of "stand-up" far IR resonators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan P Singer
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA.
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Singer JP, Kooi SE, Thomas EL. Focused laser spike (FLaSk) annealing of photoactivated chemically amplified resists for rapid hierarchical patterning. NANOSCALE 2011; 3:2730-2738. [PMID: 21503354 DOI: 10.1039/c1nr10050e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Lithographic alternatives to conventional layer-by-layer processes for the design of 3D structures such as photonic or phononic crystals often present a dichotomy: patterning control versus patterning area. We demonstrate a combined technique of large area interference lithography and local area direct write focused laser spike (FLaSk) annealing that can enable the microscale patterning of hierarchical structures defined in their morphology by the interference and defined in placement and shape by the direct write. This is accomplished by doping a commercial chemically amplified photoresist (SU-8) with an absorbing dye to provide thermal activation at a wavelength shifted from that causing UV crosslinking. In this way, the necessary post-exposure bake to complete the crosslinking of the resist is locally performed by the FLaSk laser, rather than globally on a hot plate. By utilizing the same experimental setup as used by a 3D direct write system, it is possible to integrate another level of patterning by enabling fully dense, arbitrarily written features on multiple length scales. Both experimental and simulated results of this novel processing method are shown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan P Singer
- Department Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
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Stöhr RJ, Kolesov R, Xia K, Wrachtrup J. All-optical high-resolution nanopatterning and 3D suspending of graphene. ACS NANO 2011; 5:5141-5150. [PMID: 21595474 DOI: 10.1021/nn201226f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
We introduce a laser-based technique capable of both imaging and patterning graphene with high spatial resolution. Both tasks are performed in situ using the same confocal microscope. Imaging graphene is based on the recombination of a laser-created electron-hole plasma yielding to a broadband up- and down-converted fluorescence. Patterning is due to burning graphene by local heating causing oxidation and conversion into CO(2). By shaping the laser beam profile using 1D phase-shifting plates and 2D vortex plates we can produce graphene dots below 100 nm in diameter and graphene nanoribbons down to 20 nm in width. Additionally, we demonstrate that this technique can also be applied to freely suspended graphene resulting in freely suspended graphene nanoribbons. We further present a way of freely hanging graphene vertically and imaging it in 3D. Taking advantage of having vertically hanging graphene for the first time, we measure the out-of-plane anisotropy of the upconversion fluorescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rainer J Stöhr
- 3. Physikalisches Institut, Universität Stuttgart, 70550 Stuttgart, Germany.
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Abstract
Efficient solar energy conversion has been vigorously pursued since the 1970s, but its large-scale implementation hinges on the availability of high-efficiency modules. For maximum efficiency, it is important to absorb most of the incoming radiation, which necessitates both efficient photoexcitation and minimal electron-hole recombination. To date, researchers have primarily focused on the latter difficulty: finding a strategy to effectively separate photoinduced electrons and holes. Very few reports have been devoted to broadband sunlight absorption and photoexcitation. However, the currently available photovoltaic cells, such as amorphous silicon, and even single-crystal silicon and sensitized solar cells, cannot respond to the wide range of the solar spectrum. The photoelectric conversion characteristics of solar cells generally decrease in the infrared wavelength range. Thus, the fraction of the solar spectrum absorbed is relatively poor. In addition, the large mismatch between the diffraction limit of light and the absorption cross-section makes the probability of interactions between photons and cell materials quite low, which greatly limits photoexcitation efficiency. Therefore, there is a pressing need for research aimed at finding conditions that lead to highly efficient photoexcitation over a wide spectrum of sunlight, particularly in the visible to near-infrared wavelengths. As characterized in the emerging field of plasmonics, metallic nanostructures are endowed with optical antenna effects. These plasmonic antenna effects provide a promising platform for artificially sidestepping the diffraction limit of light and strongly enhancing absorption cross-sections. Moreover, they can efficiently excite photochemical reactions between photons and molecules close to an optical antenna through the local field enhancement. This technology has the potential to induce highly efficient photoexcitation between photons and molecules over a wide spectrum of sunlight, from visible to near-infrared wavelengths. In this Account, we describe our recent work in using metallic nanostructures to assist photochemical reactions for augmenting photoexcitation efficiency. These studies investigate the optical antenna effects of coupled plasmonic gold nanoblocks, which were fabricated with electron-beam lithography and a lift-off technique to afford high resolution and nanometric accuracy. The two-photon photoluminescence of gold and the resulting nonlinear photopolymerization on gold nanoblocks substantiate the existence of enhanced optical field domains. Local two-photon photochemical reactions due to weak incoherent light sources were identified. The optical antenna effects support the unprecedented realization of (i) direct photocarrier injection from the gold nanorods into TiO(2) and (ii) efficient and stable photocurrent generation in the absence of electron donors from visible (450 nm) to near-infrared (1300 nm) wavelengths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuyan Gao
- Research Institute for Electronic Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
| | - Kosei Ueno
- Research Institute for Electronic Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
- PRESTO, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Kawaguchi 332-0012, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Misawa
- Research Institute for Electronic Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
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Kumi G, Yanez CO, Belfield KD, Fourkas JT. High-speed multiphoton absorption polymerization: fabrication of microfluidic channels with arbitrary cross-sections and high aspect ratios. LAB ON A CHIP 2010; 10:1057-60. [PMID: 20358114 DOI: 10.1039/b923377f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate the use of high-speed, multiphoton absorption polymerization (MAP) for the fabrication of large-area microfluidic master structures. High-speed fabrication in SU8 without laser-induced damage is made possible by the use of a novel photoacid generator with a high two-photon-absorption cross-section. Master structures fabricated with MAP can be used to produce polydimethylsiloxane microchannels with high aspect ratios and/or arbitrary cross-sections. Microchannels with different cross-sections and heights can be combined readily in a single device. This fabrication technique significantly increases the diversity of channel architectures available for microfluidic devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Kumi
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, College Park, College Park, MD 20742, USA
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Magnetically driven three-dimensional manipulation and inductive heating of magnetic-dispersion containing metal alloys. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107:4834-9. [PMID: 20194786 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1001410107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Fundamental to the development of three-dimensional microelectronic fabrication is a material that enables vertical geometries. Here we show low-melting-point metal alloys containing iron dispersions that can be remotely manipulated by magnetic fields to create vertical geometries and thus enable novel three-dimensional assemblies. These iron dispersions enhance the mechanical properties needed for strong, reliable interconnects without significantly altering the electrical properties of the alloys. Additionally, these iron dispersions act as susceptors for magnetic induction heating, allowing the rapid melting of these novel alloys at temperatures lower than those usually reported for conventional metal alloys. By localizing high temperatures and by reducing temperature excursions, the materials and methods described have potential in a variety of device fabrication applications.
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Jariwala S, Venkatakrishnan K, Tan B. Single step self-enclosed fluidic channels via Two Photon Absorption (TPA) polymerization. OPTICS EXPRESS 2010; 18:1630-1636. [PMID: 20173990 DOI: 10.1364/oe.18.001630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we demonstrate a simple, fast and single-step method for fabricating self-enclosed fluidic channels via TPA. Pairs of parallel, polymerized ribs are linked by the subsequent polymerization with correctly predetermined offset between the ribs. The region, where the radicals are initiated but its concentration is below the threshold, we called it a sub-activated region. The subsequent polymerization is triggered by the overlap of the sub-activated regions of the two adjacent ribs. The dimensions of the self-enclosed channels depends on the offset between ribs, the scan speed as well as the laser parameters such as pulse energy, pulse width and repetition rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Jariwala
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ryerson University, Ontario, Canada
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Tan C, Peng CS, Pakarinen J, Pessa M, Petryakov VN, Verevkin YK, Zhang J, Wang Z, Olaizola SM, Berthou T, Tisserand S. Ordered nanostructures written directly by laser interference. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2009; 20:125303. [PMID: 19420464 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/20/12/125303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
We present a simplified method to employ laser interference lithography for the fabrication of ordered nanostructures. Neither resist, nor an elaborate fabrication process was needed. Four-beam interference patterns generated in this work included periodic arrays of holes in GaAs, covered with SiO(2) bubbles, and they were directly written into the sample. The diameters of the smallest holes were less than 30 nm. We propose a model to interpret the results.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Tan
- Optoelectronics Research Centre, Tampere University of Technology, Tampere, Finland.
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Stoneman M, Fox M, Zeng C, Raicu V. Real-time monitoring of two-photon photopolymerization for use in fabrication of microfluidic devices. LAB ON A CHIP 2009; 9:819-827. [PMID: 19255664 DOI: 10.1039/b816993d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
We report an improved method for production of microfluidic device masters using two-photon photopolymerization of SU-8 negative photoresist, which relies on a two-photon microscope (TPM) commonly used in imaging of biological samples. The device masters serve as negative relief structures for polydimethylsiloxane-based microfluidic devices. We observed that not only did the two-photon excitation of the SU-8 photoresist initiate crosslinking of the material in the region of the focus of the near-infrared laser beam (as expected) but it also resulted in emission of fluorescence in the visible range. The detected emission of SU-8 photoresist undergoing two-photon excitation displayed a strong correlation with the size of the polymerized objects produced during the exposure; this allowed the progress of the microfluidic master production process to be monitored in real-time. We demonstrate the use of the fluorescence detection during two-photon photopolymerization in the production of microfluidic devices, which were designed to trap individual yeast cells to be imaged with the same TPM used for microfluidic master writing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Stoneman
- Department of Physics, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53211, USA
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George M, Nelson E, Rogers J, Braun P. Direct Fabrication of 3D Periodic Inorganic Microstructures using Conformal Phase Masks. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2008; 48:144-8. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.200804171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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George M, Nelson E, Rogers J, Braun P. Direct Fabrication of 3D Periodic Inorganic Microstructures using Conformal Phase Masks. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2008. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.200804171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Yao X, Ito T, Higgins DA. Grayscale patterning of polymer thin films with nanometer precision by direct-write multiphoton photolithography. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2008; 24:8939-8943. [PMID: 18646728 DOI: 10.1021/la8008877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The fabrication of arbitrary grayscale patterns in poly(ethylene dioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) thin films is demonstrated. Patterns are formed by ablative direct-write multiphoton lithography using a sample scanning microscope and 870-nm light from a mode-locked Ti:sapphire laser. The surface profiles of all etched samples are characterized by atomic force microscopy. Grayscale patterns are produced by modulating the laser focus during etching. Quantitative models describing the etch depth as a function of laser power and focus are presented and employed to reproducibly control film patterning. PEDOT:PSS is found to be etched by a combination of linear and nonlinear optical processes. Sensitization by PEDOT in the composite is concluded to facilitiate removal of PSS. An ultimate etch depth precision of 1 nm is achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Yao
- Department of Chemistry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, USA
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Ueno K, Juodkazis S, Shibuya T, Yokota Y, Mizeikis V, Sasaki K, Misawa H. Nanoparticle Plasmon-Assisted Two-Photon Polymerization Induced by Incoherent Excitation Source. J Am Chem Soc 2008; 130:6928-9. [DOI: 10.1021/ja801262r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 288] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kosei Ueno
- Research Institute for Electronic Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan and PRESTO, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Kawaguchi 332-0012, Japan
| | - Saulius Juodkazis
- Research Institute for Electronic Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan and PRESTO, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Kawaguchi 332-0012, Japan
| | - Toshiyuki Shibuya
- Research Institute for Electronic Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan and PRESTO, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Kawaguchi 332-0012, Japan
| | - Yukie Yokota
- Research Institute for Electronic Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan and PRESTO, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Kawaguchi 332-0012, Japan
| | - Vygantas Mizeikis
- Research Institute for Electronic Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan and PRESTO, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Kawaguchi 332-0012, Japan
| | - Keiji Sasaki
- Research Institute for Electronic Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan and PRESTO, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Kawaguchi 332-0012, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Misawa
- Research Institute for Electronic Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan and PRESTO, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Kawaguchi 332-0012, Japan
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Juodkazis S, Mizeikis V, Matsuo S, Ueno K, Misawa H. Three-Dimensional Micro- and Nano-Structuring of Materials by Tightly Focused Laser Radiation. BULLETIN OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF JAPAN 2008. [DOI: 10.1246/bcsj.81.411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Shir DJ, Jeon S, Liao H, Highland M, Cahill DG, Su MF, El-Kady IF, Christodoulou CG, Bogart GR, Hamza AV, Rogers JA. Three-dimensional nanofabrication with elastomeric phase masks. J Phys Chem B 2007; 111:12945-58. [PMID: 17941660 DOI: 10.1021/jp074093j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This Feature Article reviews recent work on an optical technique for fabricating, in a single exposure step, three-dimensional (3D) nanostructures with diverse structural layouts. The approach, which we refer to as proximity field nanopatterning, uses conformable, elastomeric phase masks to pattern thick layers of transparent, photosensitive materials in a conformal contact mode geometry. Aspects of the optics, the materials, and the physical chemistry associated with this method are outlined. A range of 3D structures illustrate its capabilities, and several application examples demonstrate possible areas of use in technologies ranging from microfluidics to photonic materials to density gradient structures for chemical release and high-energy density science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Shir
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Seitz Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
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Pitts JD, Howell AR, Taboada R, Banerjee I, Wang J, Goodman SL, Campagnola PJ. New Photoactivators for Multiphoton Excited Three-dimensional Submicron Cross-linking of Proteins: Bovine Serum Albumin and Type 1 Collagen¶†. Photochem Photobiol 2007. [DOI: 10.1562/0031-8655(2002)0760135npfmet2.0.co2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Pins GD, Bush KA, Cunningham LP, Campagnola PJ. Multiphoton excited fabricated nano and micro patterned extracellular matrix proteins direct cellular morphology. J Biomed Mater Res A 2006; 78:194-204. [PMID: 16637027 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.30680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
We use multiphoton excited (MPE) photochemistry to fabricate patterned extracellular matrices (ECM) and to investigate the morphology of human dermal fibroblasts adhered to the resulting photocrosslinked linear structures of fibronectin (FN), fibrinogen (FG), and bovine serum albumin (BSA). These proteins were chosen to systematically investigate the roles of topography and ECM biochemistry on cell spreading, as fibroblasts bind directly to both FN and FG at RGD sites through known integrins, whereas BSA provides no comparable ECM cues for cell binding. MPE crosslinked patterns are created from parallel linear structures 600 nm in width, 200 microm in length, and spaced by either 10 or 40 microm. Immunofluorescence staining of FN and FG was used to assay the functionality of crosslinked proteins. The metrics of orientation, elongation, and cell perimeter were used to quantitate the resulting cellular behavior on the crosslinked protein patterns. These parameters all reflect statistical differences for cells on BSA, relative to the similar statistical behavior on fibronectin and fibrinogen. Cells on the BSA patterns are constrained by physical guidance and orientation between linear structures. In contrast, cells adhered on both FN and FG had a greater propensity to spread across adjacent structures, indicating the importance of cell matrix interactions. Focal adhesion staining of cells adhered to the protein structures revealed similar trends. These findings are consistent with our hypothesis that these crosslinked matrix protein structures are expected to direct cell adhesion and spreading and that the topography and ECM cues lead to different forms of guidance.
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Affiliation(s)
- George D Pins
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts 01609, USA
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LaFratta CN, Li L, Fourkas JT. Soft-lithographic replication of 3D microstructures with closed loops. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:8589-94. [PMID: 16720698 PMCID: PMC1464799 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0603247103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2005] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
There is growing interest in lithographic technologies for creating 3D microstructures. Such techniques are generally serial in nature, prohibiting the mass production of devices. Soft-lithographic techniques show great promise for simple and rapid replication of arrays of microstructures but have heretofore not been capable of direct replication of structures with closed loops. We demonstrate that 3D microstructures created with multiphoton absorption polymerization can be replicated by using microtransfer molding to afford complex daughter structures containing closed loops. This method relieves many of the topological constraints of soft lithography, paving the way for the large-scale replication of true 3D microstructures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher N. LaFratta
- *Eugene F. Merkert Chemistry Center, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467; and
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742
| | - Linjie Li
- *Eugene F. Merkert Chemistry Center, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467; and
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742
| | - John T. Fourkas
- *Eugene F. Merkert Chemistry Center, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467; and
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742
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28
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Khoury G, Eisenberg HS, Fonseca EJS, Bouwmeester D. Nonlinear interferometry via Fock-state projection. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2006; 96:203601. [PMID: 16803172 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.96.203601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2006] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
We use a photon-number-resolving detector to monitor the photon-number distribution of the output of an interferometer, as a function of phase delay. As inputs we use coherent states with mean photon number up to seven. The postselection of a specific Fock (photon-number) state effectively induces high-order optical nonlinearities. Following a scheme by Bentley and Boyd [Opt. Express 12, 5735 (2004).10.1364/OPEX.12.005735], we explore this effect to demonstrate interference patterns a factor of 5 smaller than the Rayleigh limit.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Khoury
- Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, USA.
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29
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Gao Y, Potasek MJ. Effects of excited-state absorption on two-photon absorbing materials. APPLIED OPTICS 2006; 45:2521-8. [PMID: 16623250 DOI: 10.1364/ao.45.002521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Many chromophores with a large two-photon absorptive cross section are hybrid materials where the two-photon absorption (TPA) is coupled to an excited-state absorption (ESA). We develop a numerical technique to investigate hybrid two-photon processes in nonlinear absorbers. Our numerical method compares well with published results. In addition to customary calculation of the transmission curve, we demonstrate the importance of the ESA following the TPA, which may cause significant temporal and radial distortion. We also show that improvements in the transmission can result in significant radial and temporal pulse distortion, which may actually reduce the material effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongwang Gao
- Department of Electrical Engineering, City College of New York, New York 10031, USA.
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30
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Farrer RA, LaFratta CN, Li L, Praino J, Naughton MJ, Saleh BEA, Teich MC, Fourkas JT. Selective Functionalization of 3-D Polymer Microstructures. J Am Chem Soc 2006; 128:1796-7. [PMID: 16464071 DOI: 10.1021/ja0583620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We demonstrate the selective functionalization of 3-D polymer microstructures that were created using multiphoton absorption polymerization. By fabricating different portions of the structures with acrylic and methacrylic polymers, we are able to take advantage of the differential reactivities of these materials to perform functionalization chemistry on a single polymeric component. We demonstrate the selective deposition of metal to create structures, such as a functional microinductor. Our strategy is quite general and can be extended readily to the deposition of materials, such as metal oxides and biomolecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard A Farrer
- Eugene F. Merkert Chemistry Center, and the Department of Physics, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467, USA
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31
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Lee KS, Yang DY, Park SH, Kim RH. Recent developments in the use of two-photon polymerization in precise 2D and 3D microfabrications. POLYM ADVAN TECHNOL 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/pat.664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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32
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Two-Photon Photopolymerization and 3D Lithographic Microfabrication. NMR 3D ANALYSIS PHOTOPOLYMERIZATION 2006. [DOI: 10.1007/b94405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 214] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
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33
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Basu S, Wolgemuth CW, Campagnola PJ. Measurement of normal and anomalous diffusion of dyes within protein structures fabricated via multiphoton excited cross-linking. Biomacromolecules 2005; 5:2347-57. [PMID: 15530051 DOI: 10.1021/bm049707u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We demonstrate microscale spatial and chemical control of diffusion within protein matrixes created through the use of nonlinear multiphoton excited photochemistry. The mobility of fluorescent dyes of different mass and composition within controlled cross-linked environments has been measured using two-photon excited fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP). The diffusion times for several rhodamine and sulforhodamine dyes within these fabricated structures were found to be approximately 3-4 orders of magnitude slower than in free solution. The precise diffusion times can be tuned by varying the laser exposure during the fabrication of the matrix, and the diffusion can be correlated with the mesh size determined by TEM and Flory-Rehner analysis. We find that the hydrophobic Texas Red dyes (sulforhodamines) exhibit diffusion that is highly anomalous, indicative of a strong interaction with the hydrophobic cross-linked protein matrix. These results suggests the use of these cross-linked protein matrixes as ideal model systems in which to systematically study anomalous diffusion. Finally, the diffusion can be tuned within a multilayered protein matrix, and this in conjunction with slow diffusion also suggests the use of these structures in controlled release applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swarna Basu
- University of Connecticut Health Center, Department of Cell Biology and Center for Cellular Analysis and Modelling, Farmington, Connecticut 06030, USA
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34
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Baldacchini T, Pons AC, Pons J, Lafratta C, Fourkas J, Sun Y, Naughton M. Multiphoton laser direct writing of two-dimensional silver structures. OPTICS EXPRESS 2005; 13:1275-1280. [PMID: 19495000 DOI: 10.1364/opex.13.001275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
We report a novel and efficient method for the laser direct writing of two-dimensional silver structures. Multiphoton absorption of a small fraction of the output of a Ti:sapphire oscillator is sufficient to photoreduce silver nitrate in a thin film of polyvinylpyrrolidone that has been spin-coated on a substrate. The polymer can then be washed away, leaving a pattern consisting of highly interconnected silver nanoparticles. We report the characterization of the silver patterns using scanning electron and atomic force microscopies, and demonstrate the application of this technique in the creation of diffraction gratings.
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35
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Yan Y, Tao X, Sun Y, Xu G, Wang C, Yang J, Zhao X, Jiang M. Synthesis, nonlinear optical properties and the possible mechanism of photopolymerization of two new two-photon absorption chromophores. J SOLID STATE CHEM 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jssc.2004.04.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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36
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Rumpf RC, Johnson EG. Fully three-dimensional modeling of the fabrication and behavior of photonic crystals formed by holographic lithography. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. A, OPTICS, IMAGE SCIENCE, AND VISION 2004; 21:1703-1713. [PMID: 15384437 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.21.001703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
A comprehensive and fully three-dimensional model of holographic lithography is used to predict more rigorously the geometry and transmission spectra of photonic crystals formed in Epon SU-8 photoresist. It is the first effort known to the authors to incorporate physics of exposure, postexposure baking, and developing into three-dimensional models of photonic crystals. Optical absorption, reflections, standing waves, refraction, beam coherence, acid diffusion, resist shrinkage, and developing effects combine to distort lattices from their ideal geometry. These are completely neglected by intensity-threshold methods used throughout the literature to predict lattices. Numerical simulations compare remarkably well with experimental results for a face-centered-cube (FCC) photonic crystal. Absorption is shown to produce chirped lattices with broadened bandgaps. Reflections are shown to significantly alter lattice geometry and reduce image contrast. Through simulation, a diamond lattice is formed by multiple exposures, and a hybrid trigonal-FCC lattice is formed that exhibits properties of both component lattices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raymond C Rumpf
- School of Optics/CREOL, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida 32816, USA
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37
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Mizeikis V, Seet KK, Juodkazis S, Misawa H. Three-dimensional woodpile photonic crystal templates for the infrared spectral range. OPTICS LETTERS 2004; 29:2061-2063. [PMID: 15455780 DOI: 10.1364/ol.29.002061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
High-quality templates of three-dimensional woodpile photonic crystals are fabricated in photoresist SU-8 by use of femtosecond laser lithography. The samples have smooth surfaces, are mechanically stable, and are resistant to degradation under environmental and chemical influences. Fundamental and higher-order photonic stopgaps are identified in the wavelength range 2.0-8.0 microm. These templates can be used for subsequent infiltration by optically active or high-refractive-index materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vygantas Mizeikis
- Core Research for Evolutionary Science and Technology, Japan Science and Technology Corporation, Research Institute for Electronic Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
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38
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LaFratta CN, Baldacchini T, Farrer RA, Fourkas JT, Teich MC, Saleh BEA, Naughton MJ. Replication of Two-Photon-Polymerized Structures with Extremely High Aspect Ratios and Large Overhangs. J Phys Chem B 2004. [DOI: 10.1021/jp048525r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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39
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Basu S, Campagnola PJ. Enzymatic Activity of Alkaline Phosphatase Inside Protein and Polymer Structures Fabricated via Multiphoton Excitation. Biomacromolecules 2004; 5:572-9. [PMID: 15003023 DOI: 10.1021/bm0344194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We demonstrate micron scale control of bioactivity through the use of multiphoton excited photochemistry, where this technique has been used to cross-link three-dimensional matrixes of alkaline phosphatase, bovine serum albumin, and polyacrylamide and combinations therein. Using a fluorescence-based assay (ELF-97), the enzymatic activity has been studied using a Michaelis-Menten analysis, and we have measured the specificity constants kcat/KM for alkaline phosphatase in both the protein and polymer matrixes to be on the order of 10(5)-10(6) M(-1) s(-1)and are comparable to known literature values in other environments. It is found that the enzyme is simply entrapped in the polymer matrix, whereas it is completely covalently bound in the protein structures. The relative reaction rate of alkaline phosphatase bound to BSA with the ELF substrate was measured as a function of cross-link density and was found to decrease in the more tightly formed matrixes, indicating a decrease in the diffusion in the matrix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swarna Basu
- University of Connecticut Health Center, Department of Cell Biology and Center for Biomedical Imaging Technology, Farmington, Connecticut 06030, USA
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40
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Basu S, Campagnola PJ. Properties of crosslinked protein matrices for tissue engineering applications synthesized by multiphoton excitation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 71:359-68. [PMID: 15376265 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.30175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
We demonstrate the fabrication of model scaffolds and extracellular matrices using multiphoton excited photochemistry. This method is three-dimensional in nature and has excellent biocompatibility. Crosslinked matrices were fabricated from the proteins fibrinogen, fibronectin, and concanavalin A using two-photon rose bengal photoactivation and the relatives rates were determined. Immunofluorescence labeling of fibrinogen and fibronectin indicated retention of bioactivity following the multiphoton crosslinking process. Using the fluorescence recovery after photobleaching method, we measured the lateral mobility of fluorescent dyes of different mass and chemistry in order to model the behavior of therapeutic agents and bioactive molecules and found diffusion coefficients within these fabricated structures to be on the order of 10(-9)-10(-10) cm(2)/s, or approximately three to four orders of magnitude slower than in free solution. The precise diffusion coefficients can be smoothly tuned by varying the laser exposure during the fabrication of the matrix, which results in both an increase in crosslink density as well as protein concentration in the matrix. Terminal crosslink density is achieved at integrated high exposure dose and the relative fabrication rates were determined for these proteins. For all the proteins, the range of diffusion coefficients between the threshold for fabrication and the terminal limit is correlated with the change in matrix mesh size as determined by Flory-Rehner swelling analysis. Both normal Fickian as well as hindered anomalous diffusion is observed depending on specific molecular interactions of the tracer dyes and protein host. (c) 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res 71A: 359-368, 2004.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swarna Basu
- Department of Cell Biology and Center for Biomedical Imaging Technology, University of Connecticut Health Center, MC-1507, 263 Farmington Avenue, Farmington, CT 06030, USA
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41
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Design and application of high-sensitivity two-photon initiators for three-dimensional microfabrication. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 2003. [DOI: 10.1016/s1010-6030(03)00030-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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42
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Pitts JD, Howell AR, Taboada R, Banerjee I, Wang J, Goodman SL, Campagnola PJ. New photoactivators for multiphoton excited three-dimensional submicron cross-linking of proteins: bovine serum albumin and type 1 collagen. Photochem Photobiol 2002; 76:135-44. [PMID: 12194208 DOI: 10.1562/0031-8655(2002)076<0135:npfmet>2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We report the synthesis and optical characterization of two new photoactivators and demonstrate their use for multiphoton excited three-dimensional free-form fabrication with proteins. These reagents were developed with the goal of cross-linking Type 1 collagen. This cross-linking process produces structures on the micron and submicron size scales. A rose bengal diisopropyl amine derivative combines the classic photoactivator and co-initiator system into one molecule, reducing the reaction kinetics and increasing cross-linking efficiency. This derivative was successful at producing stable structures from collagen, whereas rose bengal alone was not effective. A benzophenone dimer connected by a flexible diamine tether was also synthesized. This activator has two photochemically reactive groups and is highly efficient in cross-linking bovine serum albumin and Type 1 collagen to form stable, robust structures. This approach is more flexible in terms of cross-linking a variety of proteins than by traditional benzophenone photochemistry. The photophysical properties vary greatly from that of benzophenone, with the appearance of a new, lower energy absorption band (lambda max approximately 370 nm in water) and broad, visible emission band (approximately 500 nm maximum). This absorption band is highly solvatochromic, suggesting it arises, at least in part, from a charge transfer interaction. Collagens are typically difficult to cross-link photochemically, and the results here suggest that these two new activators will be suitable for cross-linking other forms of collagen and additional proteins for biomedical applications such as the de novo assembly of biomimetic tissue scaffolds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan D Pitts
- Center for Biomaterials, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, USA
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43
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Luo L, Li C, Wang S, Huang W, Wu C, Yang H, Jiang H, Gong Q, Yang Y, Feng S. Optical microstructures fabricated by femtosecond laser two-photon polymerization. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2001. [DOI: 10.1088/1464-4258/3/6/310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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44
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45
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Sun HB, Kawakami T, Xu Y, Ye JY, Matuso S, Misawa H, Miwa M, Kaneko R. Real three-dimensional microstructures fabricated by photopolymerization of resins through two-photon absorption. OPTICS LETTERS 2000; 25:1110-2. [PMID: 18064287 DOI: 10.1364/ol.25.001110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Effective energy windows for two-photon absorption (TPA) photopolymerization of resins were investigated and, with a properly selected laser pulse energy, exquisite three-dimensional (3D) microstructures with submicrometer spatial resolution were achieved. The results show the inherent utility of TPA in the fabrication of real 3D patterns. In particular, we propose and utilize a resin pre-exposure technique by which freely movable components affixed to an axle are built, demonstrating a new application of TPA in laser microfabrication.
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46
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Pitts JD, Campagnola PJ, Epling GA, Goodman SL. Submicron Multiphoton Free-Form Fabrication of Proteins and Polymers: Studies of Reaction Efficiencies and Applications in Sustained Release. Macromolecules 2000. [DOI: 10.1021/ma9910437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan D. Pitts
- Center for Biomaterials, The University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030, Department of Physiology and Center for Biomedical Imaging Technology, The University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030, Department of Chemistry, The University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269, and Department of Physiology and Center for Biomaterials, The University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030
| | - Paul J. Campagnola
- Center for Biomaterials, The University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030, Department of Physiology and Center for Biomedical Imaging Technology, The University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030, Department of Chemistry, The University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269, and Department of Physiology and Center for Biomaterials, The University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030
| | - Gary A. Epling
- Center for Biomaterials, The University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030, Department of Physiology and Center for Biomedical Imaging Technology, The University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030, Department of Chemistry, The University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269, and Department of Physiology and Center for Biomaterials, The University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030
| | - Steven L. Goodman
- Center for Biomaterials, The University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030, Department of Physiology and Center for Biomedical Imaging Technology, The University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030, Department of Chemistry, The University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269, and Department of Physiology and Center for Biomaterials, The University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030
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47
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Campagnola PJ, Delguidice DM, Epling GA, Hoffacker KD, Howell AR, Pitts JD, Goodman SL. 3-Dimensional Submicron Polymerization of Acrylamide by Multiphoton Excitation of Xanthene Dyes. Macromolecules 2000. [DOI: 10.1021/ma991042e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Paul J. Campagnola
- Department of Physiology and Center for Biomedical Imaging Technology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030, Department of Chemistry, Stamford High, Stamford, Connecticut, Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, and Center for Biomaterials, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030
| | - David M. Delguidice
- Department of Physiology and Center for Biomedical Imaging Technology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030, Department of Chemistry, Stamford High, Stamford, Connecticut, Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, and Center for Biomaterials, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030
| | - Gary A. Epling
- Department of Physiology and Center for Biomedical Imaging Technology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030, Department of Chemistry, Stamford High, Stamford, Connecticut, Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, and Center for Biomaterials, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030
| | - Kurt D. Hoffacker
- Department of Physiology and Center for Biomedical Imaging Technology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030, Department of Chemistry, Stamford High, Stamford, Connecticut, Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, and Center for Biomaterials, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030
| | - Amy R. Howell
- Department of Physiology and Center for Biomedical Imaging Technology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030, Department of Chemistry, Stamford High, Stamford, Connecticut, Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, and Center for Biomaterials, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030
| | - Jonathan D. Pitts
- Department of Physiology and Center for Biomedical Imaging Technology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030, Department of Chemistry, Stamford High, Stamford, Connecticut, Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, and Center for Biomaterials, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030
| | - Steven L. Goodman
- Department of Physiology and Center for Biomedical Imaging Technology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030, Department of Chemistry, Stamford High, Stamford, Connecticut, Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, and Center for Biomaterials, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030
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48
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Homoelle D, Wielandy S, Gaeta AL, Borrelli NF, Smith C. Infrared photosensitivity in silica glasses exposed to femtosecond laser pulses. OPTICS LETTERS 1999; 24:1311-1313. [PMID: 18079790 DOI: 10.1364/ol.24.001311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
We investigate the use of infrared femtosecond laser pulses to induce highly localized refractive-index changes in fused-silica glasses. We characterize the magnitude of the change as a function of exposure and measure index changes as large as 3x10(-3) and 5x10(-3) in pure fused silica and boron-doped silica, respectively. The potential of this technique for writing three-dimensional photonic structures in bulk glasses is demonstrated by the fabrication of a Y coupler within a sample of pure fused silica.
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