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Nietz AK, Popa LS, Carter RE, Gerhart ML, Manikonda K, Ranum LP, Ebner TJ. Cerebral cortical functional hyperconnectivity in a mouse model of spinocerebellar ataxia type 8 (SCA8). BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.06.20.599947. [PMID: 38948725 PMCID: PMC11212952 DOI: 10.1101/2024.06.20.599947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/02/2024]
Abstract
Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 8 (SCA8) is an inherited neurodegenerative disease caused by a bidirectionally expressed CTG●CAG expansion mutation in the ATXN-8 and ATXN8-OS genes. While primarily a motor disorder, psychiatric and cognitive symptoms have been reported. It is difficult to elucidate how the disease alters brain function in areas with little or no degeneration producing both motor and cognitive symptoms. Using transparent polymer skulls and CNS-wide GCaMP6f expression, we studied neocortical networks throughout SCA8 progression using wide-field Ca2+ imaging in a transgenic mouse model of SCA8. We observed that neocortical networks in SCA8+ mice were hyperconnected globally which led to network configurations with increased global efficiency and centrality. At the regional level, significant network changes occurred in nearly all cortical regions, however mainly involved sensory and association cortices. Changes in functional connectivity in anterior motor regions worsened later in the disease. Near perfect decoding of animal genotype was obtained using a generalized linear model based on canonical correlation strengths between activity in cortical regions. The major contributors to decoding were concentrated in the somatosensory, higher visual and retrosplenial cortices and occasionally extended into the motor regions, demonstrating that the areas with the largest network changes are predictive of disease state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela K. Nietz
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Laurentiu S. Popa
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Russell E. Carter
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Morgan L Gerhart
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Keerthi Manikonda
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Laura P.W. Ranum
- Department of Molecular Genetics & Microbiology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Timothy J. Ebner
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
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Pigareva Y, Gladkov A, Kolpakov V, Kazantsev VB, Mukhina I, Pimashkin A. The Profile of Network Spontaneous Activity and Functional Organization Interplay in Hierarchically Connected Modular Neural Networks In Vitro. MICROMACHINES 2024; 15:732. [PMID: 38930702 PMCID: PMC11205292 DOI: 10.3390/mi15060732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2024] [Revised: 05/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
Modern microtechnology methods are widely used to create neural networks on a chip with a connection architecture demonstrating properties of modularity and hierarchy similar to brain networks. Such in vitro networks serve as a valuable model for studying the interplay of functional architecture within modules, their activity, and the effectiveness of inter-module interaction. In this study, we use a two-chamber microfluidic platform to investigate functional connectivity and global activity in hierarchically connected modular neural networks. We found that the strength of functional connections within the module and the profile of network spontaneous activity determine the effectiveness of inter-modular interaction and integration activity in the network. The direction of intermodular activity propagation configures the different densities of inhibitory synapses in the network. The developed microfluidic platform holds the potential to explore function-structure relationships and efficient information processing in two- or multilayer neural networks, in both healthy and pathological states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yana Pigareva
- Neurotechnology Department, Lobachevsky State University of Nizhny Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod 603950, Russia
- Central Research Laboratory, Cell Technology Department, Privolzhsky Research Medical University, Nizhny Novgorod 603005, Russia
| | - Arseniy Gladkov
- Neurotechnology Department, Lobachevsky State University of Nizhny Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod 603950, Russia
- Central Research Laboratory, Cell Technology Department, Privolzhsky Research Medical University, Nizhny Novgorod 603005, Russia
| | - Vladimir Kolpakov
- Neurotechnology Department, Lobachevsky State University of Nizhny Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod 603950, Russia
- Central Research Laboratory, Cell Technology Department, Privolzhsky Research Medical University, Nizhny Novgorod 603005, Russia
| | - Victor B. Kazantsev
- Neurotechnology Department, Lobachevsky State University of Nizhny Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod 603950, Russia
- Central Research Laboratory, Cell Technology Department, Privolzhsky Research Medical University, Nizhny Novgorod 603005, Russia
| | - Irina Mukhina
- Neurotechnology Department, Lobachevsky State University of Nizhny Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod 603950, Russia
- Central Research Laboratory, Cell Technology Department, Privolzhsky Research Medical University, Nizhny Novgorod 603005, Russia
| | - Alexey Pimashkin
- Neurotechnology Department, Lobachevsky State University of Nizhny Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod 603950, Russia
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Orsher Y, Rom A, Perel R, Lahini Y, Blinder P, Shein-Idelson M. Sequentially activated discrete modules appear as traveling waves in neuronal measurements with limited spatiotemporal sampling. eLife 2024; 12:RP92254. [PMID: 38451063 PMCID: PMC10942589 DOI: 10.7554/elife.92254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Numerous studies have identified traveling waves in the cortex and suggested they play important roles in brain processing. These waves are most often measured using macroscopic methods that are unable to assess the local spiking activity underlying wave dynamics. Here, we investigated the possibility that waves may not be traveling at the single neuron scale. We first show that sequentially activating two discrete brain areas can appear as traveling waves in EEG simulations. We next reproduce these results using an analytical model of two sequentially activated regions. Using this model, we were able to generate wave-like activity with variable directions, velocities, and spatial patterns, and to map the discriminability limits between traveling waves and modular sequential activations. Finally, we investigated the link between field potentials and single neuron excitability using large-scale measurements from turtle cortex ex vivo. We found that while field potentials exhibit wave-like dynamics, the underlying spiking activity was better described by consecutively activated spatially adjacent groups of neurons. Taken together, this study suggests caution when interpreting phase delay measurements as continuously propagating wavefronts in two different spatial scales. A careful distinction between modular and wave excitability profiles across scales will be critical for understanding the nature of cortical computations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuval Orsher
- School of Neurobiology, Biochemistry, and Biophysics, Tel Aviv UniversityTel AvivIsrael
- School of Physics & Astronomy, Faculty of Exact Sciences, Tel Aviv UniversityTel AvivIsrael
| | - Ariel Rom
- School of Neurobiology, Biochemistry, and Biophysics, Tel Aviv UniversityTel AvivIsrael
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, IsraelTel AvivIsrael
| | - Rotem Perel
- School of Neurobiology, Biochemistry, and Biophysics, Tel Aviv UniversityTel AvivIsrael
| | - Yoav Lahini
- School of Physics & Astronomy, Faculty of Exact Sciences, Tel Aviv UniversityTel AvivIsrael
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, IsraelTel AvivIsrael
| | - Pablo Blinder
- School of Neurobiology, Biochemistry, and Biophysics, Tel Aviv UniversityTel AvivIsrael
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, IsraelTel AvivIsrael
| | - Mark Shein-Idelson
- School of Neurobiology, Biochemistry, and Biophysics, Tel Aviv UniversityTel AvivIsrael
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, IsraelTel AvivIsrael
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Lee H, Yi GS, Nam Y. Connectivity and network burst properties of in-vitro neuronal networks induced by a clustered structure with alginate hydrogel patterning. Biomed Eng Lett 2023; 13:659-670. [PMID: 37872997 PMCID: PMC10590365 DOI: 10.1007/s13534-023-00289-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Revised: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Modularity is one of the important structural properties that affect information processing and other functionalities of neuronal networks. Researchers have developed in-vitro clustered network models for reproducing the modularity, but it is still challenging to control the segregation and integration of several sub-populations of them. We cultured clustered networks with alginate patterning and collected the electrophysiological signals to investigate the changes in functional properties during the development. We built inter-connected neuronal clusters using alginate micro-patterning with a circular shape on the surface of the micro-electrode array. The neuronal clusters were enabled to be connected at 3 or 10 days-in-vitro (DIV) by removing the barrier. The neuronal signals from different types of networks were collected from 16 to 34 DIV, and functional characteristics were examined. Connectivity and burst motif analysis were carried out to find out the relation between the structure and function of the networks. Neuronal networks with clustered structure showed different activity properties from the random networks along the development. The clustered networks had more short-range connections compared to the random networks. In the network burst motif analysis, the clustered networks showed more various patterns and a slower propagation of the activation patterns. In this study, we successfully cultured neuronal networks with clustered structure, and the structure affected the functional properties. The network model suggested in this study will be a good solution for observing the effect of structure on function during their development. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13534-023-00289-5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyungsub Lee
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141 Republic of Korea
| | - Gwan-Su Yi
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141 Republic of Korea
| | - Yoonkey Nam
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141 Republic of Korea
- KAIST Institute for Health Science and Technology, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141 Republic of Korea
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Delgado L, Navarrete M. Shining the Light on Astrocytic Ensembles. Cells 2023; 12:1253. [PMID: 37174653 PMCID: PMC10177371 DOI: 10.3390/cells12091253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Revised: 04/22/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
While neurons have traditionally been considered the primary players in information processing, the role of astrocytes in this mechanism has largely been overlooked due to experimental constraints. In this review, we propose that astrocytic ensembles are active working groups that contribute significantly to animal conduct and suggest that studying the maps of these ensembles in conjunction with neurons is crucial for a more comprehensive understanding of behavior. We also discuss available methods for studying astrocytes and argue that these ensembles, complementarily with neurons, code and integrate complex behaviors, potentially specializing in concrete functions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marta Navarrete
- Instituto Cajal, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), 28002 Madrid, Spain
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Hong N, Nam Y. Neurons-on-a-Chip: In Vitro NeuroTools. Mol Cells 2022; 45:76-83. [PMID: 35236782 PMCID: PMC8906998 DOI: 10.14348/molcells.2022.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Revised: 12/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurons-on-a-Chip technology has been developed to provide diverse in vitro neuro-tools to study neuritogenesis, synaptogensis, axon guidance, and network dynamics. The two core enabling technologies are soft-lithography and microelectrode array technology. Soft lithography technology made it possible to fabricate microstamps and microfluidic channel devices with a simple replica molding method in a biological laboratory and innovatively reduced the turn-around time from assay design to chip fabrication, facilitating various experimental designs. To control nerve cell behaviors at the single cell level via chemical cues, surface biofunctionalization methods and micropatterning techniques were developed. Microelectrode chip technology, which provides a functional readout by measuring the electrophysiological signals from individual neurons, has become a popular platform to investigate neural information processing in networks. Due to these key advances, it is possible to study the relationship between the network structure and functions, and they have opened a new era of neurobiology and will become standard tools in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nari Hong
- Department of Information and Communication Engineering, Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology (DGIST), Daegu 42988, Korea
| | - Yoonkey Nam
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, Korea
- KAIST Institute for Institute for Health Science and Technology, KAIST, Daejeon 34141, Korea
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Forro C, Caron D, Angotzi GN, Gallo V, Berdondini L, Santoro F, Palazzolo G, Panuccio G. Electrophysiology Read-Out Tools for Brain-on-Chip Biotechnology. MICROMACHINES 2021; 12:124. [PMID: 33498905 PMCID: PMC7912435 DOI: 10.3390/mi12020124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Brain-on-Chip (BoC) biotechnology is emerging as a promising tool for biomedical and pharmaceutical research applied to the neurosciences. At the convergence between lab-on-chip and cell biology, BoC couples in vitro three-dimensional brain-like systems to an engineered microfluidics platform designed to provide an in vivo-like extrinsic microenvironment with the aim of replicating tissue- or organ-level physiological functions. BoC therefore offers the advantage of an in vitro reproduction of brain structures that is more faithful to the native correlate than what is obtained with conventional cell culture techniques. As brain function ultimately results in the generation of electrical signals, electrophysiology techniques are paramount for studying brain activity in health and disease. However, as BoC is still in its infancy, the availability of combined BoC-electrophysiology platforms is still limited. Here, we summarize the available biological substrates for BoC, starting with a historical perspective. We then describe the available tools enabling BoC electrophysiology studies, detailing their fabrication process and technical features, along with their advantages and limitations. We discuss the current and future applications of BoC electrophysiology, also expanding to complementary approaches. We conclude with an evaluation of the potential translational applications and prospective technology developments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Csaba Forro
- Tissue Electronics, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Largo Barsanti e Matteucci, 53-80125 Naples, Italy; (C.F.); (F.S.)
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Davide Caron
- Enhanced Regenerative Medicine, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego, 30-16163 Genova, Italy; (D.C.); (V.G.)
| | - Gian Nicola Angotzi
- Microtechnology for Neuroelectronics, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego, 30-16163 Genova, Italy; (G.N.A.); (L.B.)
| | - Vincenzo Gallo
- Enhanced Regenerative Medicine, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego, 30-16163 Genova, Italy; (D.C.); (V.G.)
| | - Luca Berdondini
- Microtechnology for Neuroelectronics, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego, 30-16163 Genova, Italy; (G.N.A.); (L.B.)
| | - Francesca Santoro
- Tissue Electronics, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Largo Barsanti e Matteucci, 53-80125 Naples, Italy; (C.F.); (F.S.)
| | - Gemma Palazzolo
- Enhanced Regenerative Medicine, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego, 30-16163 Genova, Italy; (D.C.); (V.G.)
| | - Gabriella Panuccio
- Enhanced Regenerative Medicine, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego, 30-16163 Genova, Italy; (D.C.); (V.G.)
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Lodi M, Della Rossa F, Sorrentino F, Storace M. Analyzing synchronized clusters in neuron networks. Sci Rep 2020; 10:16336. [PMID: 33004897 PMCID: PMC7530773 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-73269-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The presence of synchronized clusters in neuron networks is a hallmark of information transmission and processing. Common approaches to study cluster synchronization in networks of coupled oscillators ground on simplifying assumptions, which often neglect key biological features of neuron networks. Here we propose a general framework to study presence and stability of synchronous clusters in more realistic models of neuron networks, characterized by the presence of delays, different kinds of neurons and synapses. Application of this framework to two examples with different size and features (the directed network of the macaque cerebral cortex and the swim central pattern generator of a mollusc) provides an interpretation key to explain known functional mechanisms emerging from the combination of anatomy and neuron dynamics. The cluster synchronization analysis is carried out also by changing parameters and studying bifurcations. Despite some modeling simplifications in one of the examples, the obtained results are in good agreement with previously reported biological data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Lodi
- DITEN, University of Genoa, Via Opera Pia 11a, 16145, Genova, Italy
| | - Fabio Della Rossa
- Mechanical Engineering Department, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87131, USA
- Dipartimento di Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegneria, Politecnico di Milano, 20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesco Sorrentino
- Mechanical Engineering Department, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87131, USA
| | - Marco Storace
- DITEN, University of Genoa, Via Opera Pia 11a, 16145, Genova, Italy.
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Chimera states in hybrid coupled neuron populations. Neural Netw 2020; 126:108-117. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neunet.2020.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2019] [Revised: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Cullen DK, Gordián-Vélez WJ, Struzyna LA, Jgamadze D, Lim J, Wofford KL, Browne KD, Chen HI. Bundled Three-Dimensional Human Axon Tracts Derived from Brain Organoids. iScience 2019; 21:57-67. [PMID: 31654854 PMCID: PMC6820245 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2019.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Revised: 06/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Reestablishing cerebral connectivity is a critical part of restoring neuronal network integrity and brain function after trauma, stroke, and neurodegenerative diseases. Creating transplantable axon tracts in the laboratory is an unexplored strategy for overcoming the common barriers limiting axon regeneration in vivo, including growth-inhibiting factors and the limited outgrowth capacity of mature neurons in the brain. We describe the generation, phenotype, and connectivity of constrained three-dimensional human axon tracts derived from brain organoids. These centimeter-long constructs are encased in an agarose shell that permits physical manipulation and are composed of discrete cellular regions spanned by axon tracts, mirroring the separation of cerebral gray and white matter. Features of cerebral cortex also are emulated, as evidenced by the presence of neurons with different cortical layer phenotypes. This engineered neural tissue represents a first step toward potentially reconstructing brain circuits by physically replacing neuronal populations and long-range axon tracts in the brain. Transplantable 3D axon tracts are tissue engineered from human brain organoids Growth of organoid axons in a hydrogel column is enhanced compared with planar culture Organoids within engineered columns can maintain a laminar cortical architecture Functional connectivity across the construct is demonstrated using calcium imaging
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Affiliation(s)
- D Kacy Cullen
- Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 105E Hayden Hall/3320 Smith Walk, 3rd Floor, Silverstein Pavilion/3400 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Center for Neurotrauma, Neurodegeneration & Restoration, Corporal Michael J. Crescenz Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
| | - Wisberty J Gordián-Vélez
- Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 105E Hayden Hall/3320 Smith Walk, 3rd Floor, Silverstein Pavilion/3400 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Center for Neurotrauma, Neurodegeneration & Restoration, Corporal Michael J. Crescenz Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Laura A Struzyna
- Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 105E Hayden Hall/3320 Smith Walk, 3rd Floor, Silverstein Pavilion/3400 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Center for Neurotrauma, Neurodegeneration & Restoration, Corporal Michael J. Crescenz Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Dennis Jgamadze
- Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 105E Hayden Hall/3320 Smith Walk, 3rd Floor, Silverstein Pavilion/3400 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Center for Neurotrauma, Neurodegeneration & Restoration, Corporal Michael J. Crescenz Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - James Lim
- Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 105E Hayden Hall/3320 Smith Walk, 3rd Floor, Silverstein Pavilion/3400 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Center for Neurotrauma, Neurodegeneration & Restoration, Corporal Michael J. Crescenz Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Kathryn L Wofford
- Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 105E Hayden Hall/3320 Smith Walk, 3rd Floor, Silverstein Pavilion/3400 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Center for Neurotrauma, Neurodegeneration & Restoration, Corporal Michael J. Crescenz Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Kevin D Browne
- Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 105E Hayden Hall/3320 Smith Walk, 3rd Floor, Silverstein Pavilion/3400 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Center for Neurotrauma, Neurodegeneration & Restoration, Corporal Michael J. Crescenz Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - H Isaac Chen
- Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 105E Hayden Hall/3320 Smith Walk, 3rd Floor, Silverstein Pavilion/3400 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Center for Neurotrauma, Neurodegeneration & Restoration, Corporal Michael J. Crescenz Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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