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Medeiros W, Hidalgo K, Leão T, de Carvalho LM, Ziemert N, Oliveira V. Unlocking the biosynthetic potential and taxonomy of the Antarctic microbiome along temporal and spatial gradients. Microbiol Spectr 2024; 12:e0024424. [PMID: 38747631 PMCID: PMC11237469 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00244-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 04/19/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Extreme environments, such as Antarctica, select microbial communities that display a range of evolutionary strategies to survive and thrive under harsh environmental conditions. These include a diversity of specialized metabolites, which have the potential to be a source for new natural product discovery. Efforts using (meta)genome mining approaches to identify and understand biosynthetic gene clusters in Antarctica are still scarce, and the extent of their diversity and distribution patterns in the environment have yet to be discovered. Herein, we investigated the biosynthetic gene diversity of the biofilm microbial community of Whalers Bay, Deception Island, in the Antarctic Peninsula and revealed its distribution patterns along spatial and temporal gradients by applying metagenome mining approaches and multivariable analysis. The results showed that the Whalers Bay microbial community harbors a great diversity of biosynthetic gene clusters distributed into seven classes, with terpene being the most abundant. The phyla Proteobacteria and Bacteroidota were the most abundant in the microbial community and contributed significantly to the biosynthetic gene abundances in Whalers Bay. Furthermore, the results highlighted a significant correlation between the distribution of biosynthetic genes and taxonomic diversity, emphasizing the intricate interplay between microbial taxonomy and their potential for specialized metabolite production.IMPORTANCEThis research on antarctic microbial biosynthetic diversity in Whalers Bay, Deception Island, unveils the hidden potential of extreme environments for natural product discovery. By employing metagenomic techniques, the research highlights the extensive diversity of biosynthetic gene clusters and identifies key microbial phyla, Proteobacteria and Bacteroidota, as significant contributors. The correlation between taxonomic diversity and biosynthetic gene distribution underscores the intricate interplay governing specialized metabolite production. These findings are crucial for understanding microbial adaptation in extreme environments and hold significant implications for bioprospecting initiatives. The study opens avenues for discovering novel bioactive compounds with potential applications in medicine and industry, emphasizing the importance of preserving and exploring these polyextreme ecosystems to advance biotechnological and pharmaceutical research.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Medeiros
- Microbial Resources Division, Research Center for Chemistry, Biology, and Agriculture (CPQBA), Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Paulínia, São Paulo, Brazil
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology, and Infection Medicine Institute for Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics, German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Tübingen, Germany
| | - Kelly Hidalgo
- Microbial Resources Division, Research Center for Chemistry, Biology, and Agriculture (CPQBA), Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Paulínia, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Tiago Leão
- Chemistry Institute, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lucas Miguel de Carvalho
- Center for Computing in Engineering and Sciences, Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Nadine Ziemert
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology, and Infection Medicine Institute for Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics, German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Tübingen, Germany
| | - Valeria Oliveira
- Microbial Resources Division, Research Center for Chemistry, Biology, and Agriculture (CPQBA), Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Paulínia, São Paulo, Brazil
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2
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Clara L, David C, Laila S, Virginie R, Marie-Joelle V. Comparative Proteomic Analysis of Transcriptional and Regulatory Proteins Abundances in S. lividans and S. coelicolor Suggests a Link between Various Stresses and Antibiotic Production. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232314792. [PMID: 36499130 PMCID: PMC9739823 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232314792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Revised: 11/14/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptomyces coelicolor and Streptomyces lividans constitute model strains to study the regulation of antibiotics biosynthesis in Streptomyces species since these closely related strains possess the same pathways directing the biosynthesis of various antibiotics but only S. coelicolor produces them. To get a better understanding of the origin of the contrasted abilities of these strains to produce bioactive specialized metabolites, these strains were grown in conditions of phosphate limitation or proficiency and a comparative analysis of their transcriptional/regulatory proteins was carried out. The abundance of the vast majority of the 355 proteins detected greatly differed between these two strains and responded differently to phosphate availability. This study confirmed, consistently with previous studies, that S. coelicolor suffers from nitrogen stress. This stress likely triggers the degradation of the nitrogen-rich peptidoglycan cell wall in order to recycle nitrogen present in its constituents, resulting in cell wall stress. When an altered cell wall is unable to fulfill its osmo-protective function, the bacteria also suffer from osmotic stress. This study thus revealed that these three stresses are intimately linked in S. coelicolor. The aggravation of these stresses leading to an increase of antibiotic biosynthesis, the connection between these stresses, and antibiotic production are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lejeune Clara
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Department of Microbiology, Group “Energetic Metabolism of Streptomyces”, CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Cornu David
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Department of Microbiology, Group “Energetic Metabolism of Streptomyces”, CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Sago Laila
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Department of Microbiology, Group “Energetic Metabolism of Streptomyces”, CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Redeker Virginie
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Department of Microbiology, Group “Energetic Metabolism of Streptomyces”, CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA) and Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Molecular Imaging Center (MIRCen), Institut François Jacob, Université Paris-Saclay, 92260 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Virolle Marie-Joelle
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Department of Microbiology, Group “Energetic Metabolism of Streptomyces”, CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
- Correspondence:
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3
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Del Carratore F, Hanko EK, Breitling R, Takano E. Biotechnological application of Streptomyces for the production of clinical drugs and other bioactive molecules. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2022; 77:102762. [PMID: 35908316 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2022.102762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Streptomyces is one of the most relevant genera in biotechnology, and its rich secondary metabolism is responsible for the biosynthesis of a plethora of bioactive compounds, including several clinically relevant drugs. The use of Streptomyces species for the manufacture of natural products has been established for more than half a century; however, the tremendous advances observed in recent years in genetic engineering and molecular biology have revolutionised the optimisation of Streptomyces as cell factories and drastically expanded the biotechnological potential of these bacteria. Here, we illustrate the most exciting advances reported in the past few years, with a particular focus on the approaches significantly improving the biotechnological capacity of Streptomyces to produce clinical drugs and other valuable secondary metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Del Carratore
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, United Kingdom
| | - Erik Kr Hanko
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, United Kingdom
| | - Rainer Breitling
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, United Kingdom
| | - Eriko Takano
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, United Kingdom.
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4
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Connolly JA, Harcombe WR, Smanski MJ, Kinkel LL, Takano E, Breitling R. Harnessing intercellular signals to engineer the soil microbiome. Nat Prod Rep 2021; 39:311-324. [PMID: 34850800 DOI: 10.1039/d1np00034a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Covering: Focus on 2015 to 2020Plant and soil microbiomes consist of diverse communities of organisms from across kingdoms and can profoundly affect plant growth and health. Natural product-based intercellular signals govern important interactions between microbiome members that ultimately regulate their beneficial or harmful impacts on the plant. Exploiting these evolved signalling circuits to engineer microbiomes towards beneficial interactions with crops is an attractive goal. There are few reports thus far of engineering the intercellular signalling of microbiomes, but this article argues that it represents a tremendous opportunity for advancing the field of microbiome engineering. This could be achieved through the selection of synergistic consortia in combination with genetic engineering of signal pathways to realise an optimised microbiome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack A Connolly
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Manchester Synthetic Biology Research Centre SYNBIOCHEM, Faculty of Science and Engineering, School of Natural Sciences, Department of Chemistry, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK.
| | - William R Harcombe
- BioTechnology Institute, University of Minnesota, Twin-Cities, Saint Paul, MN55108, USA.,Department of Evolution, and Behaviour, University of Minnesota, Twin-Cities Saint Paul, MN55108, USA
| | - Michael J Smanski
- BioTechnology Institute, University of Minnesota, Twin-Cities, Saint Paul, MN55108, USA.,Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Twin-Cities, Saint Paul, MN55108, USA
| | - Linda L Kinkel
- BioTechnology Institute, University of Minnesota, Twin-Cities, Saint Paul, MN55108, USA.,Department of Plant Pathology, University of Minnesota, Twin-Cities, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - Eriko Takano
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Manchester Synthetic Biology Research Centre SYNBIOCHEM, Faculty of Science and Engineering, School of Natural Sciences, Department of Chemistry, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK.
| | - Rainer Breitling
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Manchester Synthetic Biology Research Centre SYNBIOCHEM, Faculty of Science and Engineering, School of Natural Sciences, Department of Chemistry, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK.
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Mingyar E, Mühling L, Kulik A, Winkler A, Wibberg D, Kalinowski J, Blin K, Weber T, Wohlleben W, Stegmann E. A Regulator Based "Semi-Targeted" Approach to Activate Silent Biosynthetic Gene Clusters. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22147567. [PMID: 34299187 PMCID: PMC8306873 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22147567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Revised: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
By culturing microorganisms under standard laboratory conditions, most biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) are not expressed, and thus, the products are not produced. To explore this biosynthetic potential, we developed a novel "semi-targeted" approach focusing on activating "silent" BGCs by concurrently introducing a group of regulator genes into streptomycetes of the Tübingen strain collection. We constructed integrative plasmids containing two classes of regulatory genes under the control of the constitutive promoter ermE*p (cluster situated regulators (CSR) and Streptomyces antibiotic regulatory proteins (SARPs)). These plasmids were introduced into Streptomyces sp. TÜ17, Streptomyces sp. TÜ10 and Streptomyces sp. TÜ102. Introduction of the CSRs-plasmid into strain S. sp. TÜ17 activated the production of mayamycin A. By using the individual regulator genes, we proved that Aur1P, was responsible for the activation. In strain S. sp. TÜ102, the introduction of the SARP-plasmid triggered the production of a chartreusin-like compound. Insertion of the CSRs-plasmid into strain S. sp. TÜ10 resulted in activating the warkmycin-BGC. In both recombinants, activation of the BGCs was only possible through the simultaneous expression of aur1PR3 and griR in S. sp. TÜ102 and aur1P and pntR in of S. sp. TÜ10.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik Mingyar
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076 Tübingen, Germany; (E.M.); (L.M.); (A.K.); (W.W.)
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Lucas Mühling
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076 Tübingen, Germany; (E.M.); (L.M.); (A.K.); (W.W.)
| | - Andreas Kulik
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076 Tübingen, Germany; (E.M.); (L.M.); (A.K.); (W.W.)
- Department of Microbial Bioactive Compounds, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Anika Winkler
- Center for Biotechnology (CeBiTec), Universität Bielefeld, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany; (A.W.); (D.W.); (J.K.)
| | - Daniel Wibberg
- Center for Biotechnology (CeBiTec), Universität Bielefeld, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany; (A.W.); (D.W.); (J.K.)
| | - Jörn Kalinowski
- Center for Biotechnology (CeBiTec), Universität Bielefeld, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany; (A.W.); (D.W.); (J.K.)
| | - Kai Blin
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Kemitorvet, Building 220, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark; (K.B.); (T.W.)
| | - Tilmann Weber
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Kemitorvet, Building 220, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark; (K.B.); (T.W.)
| | - Wolfgang Wohlleben
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076 Tübingen, Germany; (E.M.); (L.M.); (A.K.); (W.W.)
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124—Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Evi Stegmann
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076 Tübingen, Germany; (E.M.); (L.M.); (A.K.); (W.W.)
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- Department of Microbial Bioactive Compounds, Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2124—Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
- Correspondence:
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6
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Siupka P, Hansen FT, Schier A, Rocco S, Sørensen T, Piotrowska-Seget Z. Antifungal Activity and Biosynthetic Potential of New Streptomyces sp. MW-W600-10 Strain Isolated from Coal Mine Water. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22147441. [PMID: 34299061 PMCID: PMC8303363 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22147441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Crop infections by fungi lead to severe losses in food production and pose risks for human health. The increasing resistance of pathogens to fungicides has led to the higher usage of these chemicals, which burdens the environment and highlights the need to find novel natural biocontrol agents. Members of the genus Streptomyces are known to produce a plethora of bioactive compounds. Recently, researchers have turned to extreme and previously unexplored niches in the search for new strains with antimicrobial activities. One such niche are underground coal mine environments. We isolated the new Streptomyces sp. MW-W600-10 strain from coal mine water samples collected at 665 m below ground level. We examined the antifungal activity of the strain against plant pathogens Fusarium culmorum DSM62188 and Nigrospora oryzae roseF7. Furthermore, we analyzed the strain’s biosynthetic potential with the antiSMASH tool. The strain showed inhibitory activity against both fungi strains. Genome mining revealed that it has 39 BGCs, among which 13 did not show similarity to those in databases. Additionally, we examined the activity of the Streptomyces sp. S-2 strain isolated from black soot against F. culmorum DSM62188. These results show that coal-related strains could be a source of novel bioactive compounds. Future studies will elucidate their full biotechnological potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piotr Siupka
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Institute of Biology, Biotechnology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia in Katowice, 40032 Katowice, Poland; (A.S.); (S.R.); (Z.P.-S.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Frederik Teilfeldt Hansen
- Faculty of Engineering and Science, Department of Chemistry and Biosciences, University of Aalborg, 9220 Aalborg, Denmark; (F.T.H.); (T.S.)
| | - Aleksandra Schier
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Institute of Biology, Biotechnology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia in Katowice, 40032 Katowice, Poland; (A.S.); (S.R.); (Z.P.-S.)
| | - Simone Rocco
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Institute of Biology, Biotechnology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia in Katowice, 40032 Katowice, Poland; (A.S.); (S.R.); (Z.P.-S.)
| | - Trine Sørensen
- Faculty of Engineering and Science, Department of Chemistry and Biosciences, University of Aalborg, 9220 Aalborg, Denmark; (F.T.H.); (T.S.)
| | - Zofia Piotrowska-Seget
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Institute of Biology, Biotechnology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia in Katowice, 40032 Katowice, Poland; (A.S.); (S.R.); (Z.P.-S.)
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Breitling R, Avbelj M, Bilyk O, Carratore F, Filisetti A, Hanko EKR, Iorio M, Redondo RP, Reyes F, Rudden M, Severi E, Slemc L, Schmidt K, Whittall DR, Donadio S, García AR, Genilloud O, Kosec G, De Lucrezia D, Petković H, Thomas G, Takano E. Synthetic biology approaches to actinomycete strain improvement. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2021; 368:6289918. [PMID: 34057181 PMCID: PMC8195692 DOI: 10.1093/femsle/fnab060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Their biochemical versatility and biotechnological importance make actinomycete bacteria attractive targets for ambitious genetic engineering using the toolkit of synthetic biology. But their complex biology also poses unique challenges. This mini review discusses some of the recent advances in synthetic biology approaches from an actinomycete perspective and presents examples of their application to the rational improvement of industrially relevant strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rainer Breitling
- Department of Chemistry, Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Manchester Synthetic Biology Research Centre SYNBIOCHEM, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK
| | - Martina Avbelj
- Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Oksana Bilyk
- Department of Chemistry, Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Manchester Synthetic Biology Research Centre SYNBIOCHEM, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK
| | - Francesco Del Carratore
- Department of Chemistry, Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Manchester Synthetic Biology Research Centre SYNBIOCHEM, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK
| | | | - Erik K R Hanko
- Department of Chemistry, Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Manchester Synthetic Biology Research Centre SYNBIOCHEM, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK
| | | | | | - Fernando Reyes
- Fundación MEDINA, Centro de Excelencia en Investigación de Medicamentos Innovadores en Andalucía, Avenida del Conocimiento 34, Parque Tecnologico de Ciencias de la Salud, 18016 Armilla, Granada, Spain
| | - Michelle Rudden
- Department of Biology, University of York, Wentworth Way, York, YO10 5DD, UK
| | | | - Lucija Slemc
- Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Kamila Schmidt
- Department of Chemistry, Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Manchester Synthetic Biology Research Centre SYNBIOCHEM, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK
| | - Dominic R Whittall
- Department of Chemistry, Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Manchester Synthetic Biology Research Centre SYNBIOCHEM, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK
| | | | | | - Olga Genilloud
- Fundación MEDINA, Centro de Excelencia en Investigación de Medicamentos Innovadores en Andalucía, Avenida del Conocimiento 34, Parque Tecnologico de Ciencias de la Salud, 18016 Armilla, Granada, Spain
| | - Gregor Kosec
- Acies Bio d.o.o., Tehnološki Park 21, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Davide De Lucrezia
- Explora Biotech Srl, Doulix business unit, Via Torino 107, 30133 Venice, Italy
| | - Hrvoje Petković
- Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Gavin Thomas
- Department of Biology, University of York, Wentworth Way, York, YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Eriko Takano
- Corresponding author: Department of Chemistry, Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Manchester Synthetic Biology Research Centre SYNBIOCHEM, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK. E-mail:
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