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Ma Z, Hao J, Yang Z, Zhang M, Xin J, Bi H, Guo D. Research Progress on the Role of Ubiquitination in Eye Diseases. Cell Biochem Biophys 2024:10.1007/s12013-024-01381-y. [PMID: 38913283 DOI: 10.1007/s12013-024-01381-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/19/2024] [Indexed: 06/25/2024]
Abstract
The occurrence and development of ophthalmic diseases are related to the dysfunction of eye tissues. Ubiquitin is an important form of protein post-translational modification, which plays an essential role in the occurrence and development of diseases through specific modification of target proteins. Ubiquitination governs a variety of intracellular signal transduction processes, including proteasome degradation, DNA damage repair, and cell cycle progression. Studies have found that ubiquitin can play a role in eye diseases such as cataracts, glaucoma, keratopathy, retinopathy, and eye tumors. In this paper, the role of protein ubiquitination in eye diseases was reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongyu Ma
- Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, 250002, China
| | - Jiawen Hao
- Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, 250002, China
| | - Zhaohui Yang
- Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, 250002, China
| | - Miao Zhang
- Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, 250002, China
| | - Jizhao Xin
- Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, 250002, China
| | - Hongsheng Bi
- Affiliated Eye Hospital of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, 250002, China.
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine for Prevention and Therapy of Ocular Diseases, Shandong Academy of Eye Disease Prevention and Therapy, Shandong Provincial Clinical Research Center of Ophthalmology and Children Visual Impairment Prevention and Control, Shandong Engineering Technology Research Center of Visual Intelligence, Shandong Academy of Health and Myopia Prevention and Control of Children and Adolescents, Jinan, 250002, China.
- Medical College of Optometry and Ophthalmology, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, 250002, China.
| | - Dadong Guo
- Affiliated Eye Hospital of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, 250002, China.
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine for Prevention and Therapy of Ocular Diseases, Shandong Academy of Eye Disease Prevention and Therapy, Shandong Provincial Clinical Research Center of Ophthalmology and Children Visual Impairment Prevention and Control, Shandong Engineering Technology Research Center of Visual Intelligence, Shandong Academy of Health and Myopia Prevention and Control of Children and Adolescents, Jinan, 250002, China.
- Medical College of Optometry and Ophthalmology, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, 250002, China.
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Guo X, Mutch M, Torres AY, Nano M, Rauth N, Harwood J, McDonald D, Chen Z, Montell C, Dai W, Montell DJ. The Zn 2+ transporter ZIP7 enhances endoplasmic-reticulum-associated protein degradation and prevents neurodegeneration in Drosophila. Dev Cell 2024:S1534-5807(24)00228-4. [PMID: 38670102 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2024.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
Proteotoxic stress drives numerous degenerative diseases. Cells initially adapt to misfolded proteins by activating the unfolded protein response (UPR), including endoplasmic-reticulum-associated protein degradation (ERAD). However, persistent stress triggers apoptosis. Enhancing ERAD is a promising therapeutic approach for protein misfolding diseases. The ER-localized Zn2+ transporter ZIP7 is conserved from plants to humans and required for intestinal self-renewal, Notch signaling, cell motility, and survival. However, a unifying mechanism underlying these diverse phenotypes was unknown. In studying Drosophila border cell migration, we discovered that ZIP7-mediated Zn2+ transport enhances the obligatory deubiquitination of proteins by the Rpn11 Zn2+ metalloproteinase in the proteasome lid. In human cells, ZIP7 and Zn2+ are limiting for deubiquitination. In a Drosophila model of neurodegeneration caused by misfolded rhodopsin (Rh1), ZIP7 overexpression degrades misfolded Rh1 and rescues photoreceptor viability and fly vision. Thus, ZIP7-mediated Zn2+ transport is a previously unknown, rate-limiting step for ERAD in vivo with therapeutic potential in protein misfolding diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoran Guo
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93110, USA
| | - Morgan Mutch
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93110, USA
| | - Alba Yurani Torres
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93110, USA
| | - Maddalena Nano
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93110, USA
| | - Nishi Rauth
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93110, USA
| | - Jacob Harwood
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93110, USA
| | - Drew McDonald
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93110, USA
| | - Zijing Chen
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93110, USA
| | - Craig Montell
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93110, USA
| | - Wei Dai
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93110, USA; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Metabolic Remodeling and Health, Institute of Metabolism and Integrative Biology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Denise J Montell
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93110, USA.
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Zegeye Y, Aredo B, Yuksel S, Kirman DC, Kumar A, Chen B, Turpin E, Shresta S, He YG, Gautron L, Tang M, Li X, DiCesare SM, Hulleman JD, Xing C, Ludwig S, Moresco EMY, Beutler BA, Ufret-Vincenty RL. E3 ubiquitin ligase Herc3 deficiency leads to accumulation of subretinal microglia and retinal neurodegeneration. Sci Rep 2024; 14:3010. [PMID: 38321224 PMCID: PMC10847449 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-53731-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Activated microglia have been implicated in the pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), diabetic retinopathy, and other neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory disorders, but our understanding of the mechanisms behind their activation is in infant stages. With the goal of identifying novel genes associated with microglial activation in the retina, we applied a semiquantitative fundus spot scoring scale to an unbiased, state-of-the-science mouse forward genetics pipeline. A mutation in the gene encoding the E3 ubiquitin ligase Herc3 led to prominent accumulation of fundus spots. CRISPR mutagenesis was used to generate Herc3-/- mice, which developed prominent accumulation of fundus spots and corresponding activated Iba1 + /CD16 + subretinal microglia, retinal thinning on OCT and histology, and functional deficits by Optomotory and electrophysiology. Bulk RNA sequencing identified activation of inflammatory pathways and differentially expressed genes involved in the modulation of microglial activation. Thus, despite the known expression of multiple E3 ubiquitin ligases in the retina, we identified a non-redundant role for Herc3 in retinal homeostasis. Our findings are significant given that a dysregulated ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) is important in prevalent retinal diseases, in which activated microglia appear to play a role. This association between Herc3 deficiency, retinal microglial activation and retinal degeneration merits further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yeshumenesh Zegeye
- Department of Ophthalmology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Bogale Aredo
- Department of Ophthalmology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Seher Yuksel
- Department of Ophthalmology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Dogan Can Kirman
- Department of Ophthalmology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Ashwani Kumar
- McDermott Center for Human Growth and Development, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Bo Chen
- Department of Ophthalmology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Emily Turpin
- Department of Ophthalmology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Sangita Shresta
- Department of Ophthalmology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Yu-Guang He
- Department of Ophthalmology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Laurent Gautron
- Center for Hypothalamic Research and Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
| | - Miao Tang
- Center for the Genetics of Host Defense, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Xiaohong Li
- Center for the Genetics of Host Defense, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Sophia M DiCesare
- Department of Ophthalmology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - John D Hulleman
- Department of Ophthalmology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Chao Xing
- McDermott Center for Human Growth and Development, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
- Department of Bioinformatics, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Sara Ludwig
- Center for Hypothalamic Research and Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
| | - Eva Marie Y Moresco
- Center for the Genetics of Host Defense, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Bruce A Beutler
- Center for the Genetics of Host Defense, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA.
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Chen X, Shi C, He M, Xiong S, Xia X. Endoplasmic reticulum stress: molecular mechanism and therapeutic targets. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2023; 8:352. [PMID: 37709773 PMCID: PMC10502142 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-023-01570-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 06/17/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) functions as a quality-control organelle for protein homeostasis, or "proteostasis". The protein quality control systems involve ER-associated degradation, protein chaperons, and autophagy. ER stress is activated when proteostasis is broken with an accumulation of misfolded and unfolded proteins in the ER. ER stress activates an adaptive unfolded protein response to restore proteostasis by initiating protein kinase R-like ER kinase, activating transcription factor 6, and inositol requiring enzyme 1. ER stress is multifaceted, and acts on aspects at the epigenetic level, including transcription and protein processing. Accumulated data indicates its key role in protein homeostasis and other diverse functions involved in various ocular diseases, such as glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, retinitis pigmentosa, achromatopsia, cataracts, ocular tumors, ocular surface diseases, and myopia. This review summarizes the molecular mechanisms underlying the aforementioned ocular diseases from an ER stress perspective. Drugs (chemicals, neurotrophic factors, and nanoparticles), gene therapy, and stem cell therapy are used to treat ocular diseases by alleviating ER stress. We delineate the advancement of therapy targeting ER stress to provide new treatment strategies for ocular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingyi Chen
- Eye Center of Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 410008, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Central South University, 410008, Changsha, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Chaoran Shi
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Meihui He
- Eye Center of Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 410008, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Central South University, 410008, Changsha, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Siqi Xiong
- Eye Center of Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 410008, Changsha, Hunan, China.
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Central South University, 410008, Changsha, China.
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.
| | - Xiaobo Xia
- Eye Center of Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 410008, Changsha, Hunan, China.
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Central South University, 410008, Changsha, China.
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.
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Guo X, Mutch M, Torres AY, Nano M, McDonald D, Chen Z, Montell C, Dai W, Montell DJ. Rescue of proteotoxic stress and neurodegeneration by the Zn 2+ transporter ZIP7. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.05.22.541645. [PMID: 37292980 PMCID: PMC10245811 DOI: 10.1101/2023.05.22.541645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Proteotoxic stress drives numerous degenerative diseases. In response to misfolded proteins, cells adapt by activating the unfolded protein response (UPR), including endoplasmic reticulum-associated protein degradation (ERAD). However persistent stress triggers apoptosis. Enhancing ERAD is a promising therapeutic approach for protein misfolding diseases. From plants to humans, loss of the Zn2+ transporter ZIP7 causes ER stress, however the mechanism is unknown. Here we show that ZIP7 enhances ERAD and that cytosolic Zn2+ is limiting for deubiquitination of client proteins by the Rpn11 Zn2+ metalloproteinase as they enter the proteasome in Drosophila and human cells. ZIP7 overexpression rescues defective vision caused by misfolded rhodopsin in Drosophila. Thus ZIP7 overexpression may prevent diseases caused by proteotoxic stress, and existing ZIP inhibitors may be effective against proteasome-dependent cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoran Guo
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93110
- present address: Biochemistry Department, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Morgan Mutch
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93110
| | - Alba Yurani Torres
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93110
| | - Maddalena Nano
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93110
| | - Drew McDonald
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93110
| | - Zijing Chen
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93110
| | - Craig Montell
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93110
| | - Wei Dai
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93110
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Metabolic Remodeling and Health, Institute of Metabolism and Integrative Biology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Denise J. Montell
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93110
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Zhao N, Li N, Wang T. PERK prevents rhodopsin degradation during retinitis pigmentosa by inhibiting IRE1-induced autophagy. J Cell Biol 2023; 222:e202208147. [PMID: 37022709 PMCID: PMC10082367 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.202208147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 04/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is the underlying cause of many degenerative diseases, including autosomal dominant retinitis pigmentosa (adRP). In adRP, mutant rhodopsins accumulate and cause ER stress. This destabilizes wild-type rhodopsin and triggers photoreceptor cell degeneration. To reveal the mechanisms by which these mutant rhodopsins exert their dominant-negative effects, we established an in vivo fluorescence reporter system to monitor mutant and wild-type rhodopsin in Drosophila. By performing a genome-wide genetic screen, we found that PERK signaling plays a key role in maintaining rhodopsin homeostasis by attenuating IRE1 activities. Degradation of wild-type rhodopsin is mediated by selective autophagy of ER, which is induced by uncontrolled IRE1/XBP1 signaling and insufficient proteasome activities. Moreover, upregulation of PERK signaling prevents autophagy and suppresses retinal degeneration in the adRP model. These findings establish a pathological role for autophagy in this neurodegenerative condition and indicate that promoting PERK activity could be used to treat ER stress-related neuropathies, including adRP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Zhao
- Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ning Li
- College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Tao Wang
- Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Tsinghua Institute of Multidisciplinary Biomedical Research, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, China
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Huang HW, Ryoo HD. Drosophila fabp is required for light-dependent Rhodopsin-1 clearance and photoreceptor survival. PLoS Genet 2021; 17:e1009551. [PMID: 34714826 PMCID: PMC8580249 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1009551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhodopsins are light-detecting proteins coupled with retinal chromophores essential for visual function. Coincidentally, dysfunctional Rhodopsin homeostasis underlies retinal degeneration in humans and model organisms. Drosophila ninaEG69D mutant is one such example, where the encoded Rh1 protein imposes endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and causes light-dependent retinal degeneration. The underlying reason for such light-dependency remains unknown. Here, we report that Drosophila fatty acid binding protein (fabp) is a gene induced in ninaEG69D/+ photoreceptors, and regulates light-dependent Rhodopsin-1 (Rh1) protein clearance and photoreceptor survival. Specifically, our photoreceptor-specific gene expression profiling study in ninaEG69D/+ flies revealed increased expression of fabp together with other genes that control light-dependent Rh1 protein degradation. fabp induction in ninaEG69D photoreceptors required vitamin A and its transporter genes. In flies reared under light, loss of fabp caused an accumulation of Rh1 proteins in cytoplasmic vesicles. The increase in Rh1 levels under these conditions was dependent on Arrestin2 that mediates feedback inhibition of light-activated Rh1. fabp mutants exhibited light-dependent retinal degeneration, a phenotype also found in other mutants that block light-induced Rh1 degradation. These observations reveal a previously unrecognized link between light-dependent Rh1 proteostasis and the ER-stress imposing ninaEG69D mutant that cause retinal degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huai-Wei Huang
- Department of Cell Biology NYU Grossman School of Medicine New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Hyung Don Ryoo
- Department of Cell Biology NYU Grossman School of Medicine New York, New York, United States of America
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Lee EJ, Chan P, Chea L, Kim K, Kaufman RJ, Lin JH. ATF6 is required for efficient rhodopsin clearance and retinal homeostasis in the P23H rho retinitis pigmentosa mouse model. Sci Rep 2021; 11:16356. [PMID: 34381136 PMCID: PMC8357971 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-95895-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Retinitis Pigmentosa (RP) is a blinding disease that arises from loss of rods and subsequently cones. The P23H rhodopsin knock-in (P23H-KI) mouse develops retinal degeneration that mirrors RP phenotype in patients carrying the orthologous variant. Previously, we found that the P23H rhodopsin protein was degraded in P23H-KI retinas, and the Unfolded Protein Response (UPR) promoted P23H rhodopsin degradation in heterologous cells in vitro. Here, we investigated the role of a UPR regulator gene, activating transcription factor 6 (Atf6), in rhodopsin protein homeostasis in heterozygous P23H rhodopsin (Rho+/P23H) mice. Significantly increased rhodopsin protein levels were found in Atf6-/-Rho+/P23H retinas compared to Atf6+/-Rho+/P23H retinas at early ages (~ P12), while rhodopsin mRNA levels were not different. The IRE1 pathway of the UPR was hyper-activated in young Atf6-/-Rho+/P23H retinas, and photoreceptor layer thickness was unchanged at this early age in Rho+/P23H mice lacking Atf6. By contrast, older Atf6-/-Rho+/P23H mice developed significantly increased retinal degeneration in comparison to Atf6+/-Rho+/P23H mice in all retinal layers, accompanied by reduced rhodopsin protein levels. Our findings demonstrate that Atf6 is required for efficient clearance of rhodopsin protein in rod photoreceptors expressing P23H rhodopsin, and that loss of Atf6 ultimately accelerates retinal degeneration in P23H-KI mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun-Jin Lee
- Department of Ophthalmology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, USA.,Department of Pathology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, USA.,VA Palo Alto Healthcare System, Palo Alto, CA, USA.,USC ROSKI Eye Institute and Department of Ophthalmology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Priscilla Chan
- Department of Neurology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Leon Chea
- Department of Ophthalmology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, USA.,Department of Pathology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, USA.,VA Palo Alto Healthcare System, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Kyle Kim
- Department of Ophthalmology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, USA.,Department of Pathology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, USA.,VA Palo Alto Healthcare System, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Randal J Kaufman
- Degenerative Diseases Program, Sanford-Burnham-Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Jonathan H Lin
- Department of Ophthalmology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, USA. .,Department of Pathology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, USA. .,VA Palo Alto Healthcare System, Palo Alto, CA, USA. .,School of Medicine, Stanford University, 300 Pasteur Dr. L235, Palo Alto, CA, 94305, USA.
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