Disrupting hierarchical control of nitrogen fixation enables carbon-dependent regulation of ammonia excretion in soil diazotrophs

Precision control of ammonium release in Azotobacter vinelandii

The capture and reduction of atmospheric dinitrogen gas to ammonium can be accomplished through the enzyme nitrogenase in a process known as biological nitrogen fixation (BNF), by a class of microbes known as diazotrophs. The diazotroph Azotobacter vinelandii is a model organism for the study of aerobic nitrogen fixation, and in recent years has been promoted as a potential producer of biofertilizers. Prior reports have demonstrated the potential to partially deregulate BNF in A. vinelandii, resulting in accumulation and extracellular release of ammonium. In many cases, deregulation requires the introduction of transgenic genes or elements to yield the desired phenotype, and the long-term stability of these strains has been reported to be somewhat problematic. In this work, we constructed two strains of A. vinelandii where regulation can be precisely controlled without the addition of any foreign genes or genetic markers. Regulation is maintained through native promoters found in A. vinelandii that can be induced through the addition of extraneous galactose. These strains result in varied degrees of regulation of BNF, and as a result, the release of extracellular ammonium is controlled in a precise, and galactose concentration-dependent manner. In addition, these strains yield high biomass levels, similar to the wild-type A. vinelandii strain and are further able to produce high percentages of the bioplastic polyhydroxybutyrate.

Competitive fitness and stability of ammonium-excreting Azotobacter vinelandii strains in the soil

Non-symbiotic N2-fixation would greatly increase the versatility of N-biofertilizers for sustainable agriculture. Genetic modification of diazotrophic bacteria has successfully enhanced NH4+ release. In this study, we compared the competitive fitness of A. vinelandii mutant strains, which allowed us to analyze the burden of NH4+ release under a broad dynamic range. Long-term competition assays under regular culture conditions confirmed a large burden for NH4+ release, exclusion by the wt strain, phenotypic instability, and loss of the ability to release NH4+. In contrast, co-inoculation in mild autoclaved soil showed a much longer co-existence with the wt strain and a stable NH4+ release phenotype. All genetically modified strains increased the N content and changed its chemical speciation in the soil. This study contributes one step forward towards bridging a knowledge gap between molecular biology laboratory research and the incorporation of N from the air into the soil in a molecular species suitable for plant nutrition, a crucial requirement for developing improved bacterial inoculants for economic and environmentally sustainable agriculture. KEY POINTS: • Genetic engineering for NH4+ excretion imposes a fitness burden on the culture medium • Large phenotypic instability for NH4+-excreting bacteria in culture medium • Lower fitness burden and phenotypic instability for NH4+-excreting bacteria in soil.

Scripting a new dialogue between diazotrophs and crops

Diazotrophs are bacteria and archaea that can reduce atmospheric dinitrogen (N2) into ammonium. Plant-diazotroph interactions have been explored for over a century as a nitrogen (N) source for crops to improve agricultural productivity and sustainability. This scientific quest has generated much information about the molecular mechanisms underlying the function, assembly, and regulation of nitrogenase, ammonium assimilation, and plant-diazotroph interactions. This review presents various approaches to manipulating N fixation activity, ammonium release by diazotrophs, and plant-diazotroph interactions. We discuss the research avenues explored in this area, propose potential future routes, emphasizing engineering at the metabolic level via biorthogonal signaling, and conclude by highlighting the importance of biocontrol measures and public acceptance.

Effects of nitrogen supply on hydrogen-oxidizing bacterial enrichment to produce microbial protein: Comparing nitrogen fixation and ammonium assimilation

To investigate the effects of nitrogen source supply on microbial protein (MP) production by hydrogen-oxidizing bacteria (HOB) under continuous feed gas provision, a sequencing batch culture comparison (N2 fixation versus ammonium assimilation) was performed. The results confirmed that even under basic cultivation conditions, N2-fixing HOB (NF-HOB) communities showed higher levels of CO2 and N2 fixation (190.45 mg/L Δ CODt and 11.75 mg/L Δ TNbiomass) than previously known, with the highest biomass yield being 0.153 g CDW/g COD-H2. Rich ammonium stimulated MP synthesis and the biomass accumulation of communities (increased by 7.4 ～ 14.3 times), presumably through the enhancement of H2 and CO2 absorption. The micro mechanism may involve encouraging the enrichment of species like Xanthobacter and Acinetobacter then raising the abundance of nitrogenase and glutamate synthase to facilitate the nitrogen assimilation. This would provide NF-HOB with ideas for optimizing their MP synthesis activity.

Enhanced extracellular ammonium release in the plant endophyte Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus through genome editing

IMPORTANCE

Our results demonstrate increased extracellular ammonium release in the endophyte plant growth-promoting bacterium Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus. Strains were constructed in a manner that leaves no antibiotic markers behind, such that these strains contain no transgenes. Levels of ammonium achieved by cultures of modified G. diazotrophicus strains reached concentrations of approximately 18 mM ammonium, while wild-type G. diazotrophicus remained much lower (below 50 µM). These findings demonstrate a strong potential for further improving the biofertilizer potential of this important microbe.

Systematic identification of endogenous strong constitutive promoters from the diazotrophic rhizosphere bacterium Pseudomonas stutzeri DSM4166 to improve its nitrogenase activity

BACKGROUND

Biological nitrogen fixation converting atmospheric dinitrogen to ammonia is an important way to provide nitrogen for plants. Pseudomonas stutzeri DSM4166 is a diazotrophic Gram-negative bacterium isolated from the rhizosphere of cereal Sorghum nutans. Endogenous constitutive promoters are important for engineering of the nitrogen fixation pathway, however, they have not been systematically characterized in DSM4166.

RESULTS

Twenty-six candidate promoters were identified from DSM4166 by RNA-seq analysis. These 26 promoters were cloned and characterized using the firefly luciferase gene. The strengths of nineteen promoters varied from 100 to 959% of the strength of the gentamicin resistance gene promoter. The strongest P12445 promoter was used to overexpress the biological nitrogen fixation pathway-specific positive regulator gene nifA. The transcription level of nitrogen fixation genes in DSM4166 were significantly increased and the nitrogenase activity was enhanced by 4.1 folds determined by the acetylene reduction method. The nifA overexpressed strain produced 359.1 µM of extracellular ammonium which was 25.6 times higher than that produced by the wild-type strain.

CONCLUSIONS

The endogenous strong constitutive promoters identified in this study will facilitate development of DSM4166 as a microbial cell factory for nitrogen fixation and production of other useful compounds.

Overview of physiological, biochemical, and regulatory aspects of nitrogen fixation in Azotobacter vinelandii

Understanding how Nature accomplishes the reduction of inert nitrogen gas to form metabolically tractable ammonia at ambient temperature and pressure has challenged scientists for more than a century. Such an understanding is a key aspect toward accomplishing the transfer of the genetic determinants of biological nitrogen fixation to crop plants as well as for the development of improved synthetic catalysts based on the biological mechanism. Over the past 30 years, the free-living nitrogen-fixing bacterium Azotobacter vinelandii emerged as a preferred model organism for mechanistic, structural, genetic, and physiological studies aimed at understanding biological nitrogen fixation. This review provides a contemporary overview of these studies and places them within the context of their historical development.

Rhizopine biosensors for plant-dependent control of bacterial gene expression

Engineering signalling between plants and microbes could be exploited to establish host-specificity between plant-growth-promoting bacteria and target crops in the environment. We previously engineered rhizopine-signalling circuitry facilitating exclusive signalling between rhizopine-producing (RhiP) plants and model bacterial strains. Here, we conduct an in-depth analysis of rhizopine-inducible expression in bacteria. We characterize two rhizopine-inducible promoters and explore the bacterial host-range of rhizopine biosensor plasmids. By tuning the expression of rhizopine uptake genes, we also construct a new biosensor plasmid pSIR05 that has minimal impact on host cell growth in vitro and exhibits markedly improved stability of expression in situ on RhiP barley roots compared to the previously described biosensor plasmid pSIR02. We demonstrate that a sub-population of Azorhizobium caulinodans cells carrying pSIR05 can sense rhizopine and activate gene expression when colonizing RhiP barley roots. However, these bacteria were mildly defective for colonization of RhiP barley roots compared to the wild-type parent strain. This work provides advancement towards establishing more robust plant-dependent control of bacterial gene expression and highlights the key challenges remaining to achieve this goal.

Millet-inspired systems metabolic engineering of NUE in crops

The use of nitrogen (N) fertilizers in agriculture has a great ability to increase crop productivity. However, their excessive use has detrimental effects on the environment. Therefore, it is necessary to develop crop varieties with improved nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) that require less N but have substantial yields. Orphan crops such as millets are cultivated in limited regions and are well adapted to lower input conditions. Therefore, they serve as a rich source of beneficial traits that can be transferred into major crops to improve their NUE. This review highlights the tremendous potential of systems biology to unravel the enzymes and pathways involved in the N metabolism of millets, which can open new possibilities to generate transgenic crops with improved NUE.

How can we possibly resolve the planet's nitrogen dilemma?

Nitrogen is the most crucial element in the production of nutritious feeds and foods. The production of reactive nitrogen by means of fossil fuel has thus far been able to guarantee the protein supply for the world population. Yet, the production and massive use of fertilizer nitrogen constitute a major threat in terms of environmental health and sustainability. It is crucial to promote consumer acceptance and awareness towards proteins produced by highly effective microorganisms, and their potential to replace proteins obtained with poor nitrogen efficiencies from plants and animals. The fact that reactive fertilizer nitrogen, produced by the Haber Bosch process, consumes a significant amount of fossil fuel worldwide is of concern. Moreover, recently, the prices of fossil fuels have increased the cost of reactive nitrogen by a factor of 3 to 5 times, while international policies are fostering the transition towards a more sustainable agro-ecology by reducing mineral fertilizers inputs and increasing organic farming. The combination of these pressures and challenges opens opportunities to use the reactive nitrogen nutrient more carefully. Time has come to effectively recover used nitrogen from secondary resources and to upgrade it to a legal status of fertilizer. Organic nitrogen is a slow-release fertilizer, it has a factor of 2.5 or higher economic value per unit nitrogen as fertilizer and thus adequate technologies to produce it, for instance by implementing photobiological processes, are promising. Finally, it appears wise to start the integration in our overall feed and food supply chains of the exceptional potential of biological nitrogen fixation. Nitrogen produced by the nitrogenase enzyme, either in the soil or in novel biotechnology reactor systems, deserves to have a 'renaissance' in the context of planetary governance in general and the increasing number of people who desire to be fed in a sustainable way in particular.

Rnf1 is the primary electron source to nitrogenase in a high-ammonium-accumulating strain of Azotobacter vinelandii

The enzyme nitrogenase performs the process of biological nitrogen fixation (BNF), converting atmospheric dinitrogen gas into the biologically accessible ammonia, which is rapidly protonated at physiological pH to yield ammonium. The reduction of dinitrogen requires both ATP and electrons. Azotobacter vinelandii is an aerobic nitrogen-fixing microbe that is a model organism for the study of BNF. Previous reports have described strains of A. vinelandii that are partially deregulated for BNF, resulting in the release of large quantities of ammonium into the growth medium. Determining the source of the electrons required to drive BNF is complicated by the existence of several protein complexes in A. vinelandii that have been linked to BNF in other species. In this work, we used the high-ammonium-accumulating strains of A. vinelandii to probe the source of electrons to nitrogenase by disrupting the Rnf1 and Fix complexes. The results of this work demonstrate the potential of these strains to be used as a tool to investigate the contributions of other enzymes or complexes in the process of BNF. These results provide strong evidence that the Rnf1 complex of A. vinelandii is the primary source of electrons delivered to the nitrogenase enzyme in this partially deregulated strain. The Fix complex under native regulation was unable to provide sufficient electrons to accumulate extracellular ammonium in the absence of the Rnf1 complex. Increased ammonium accumulation could be attained in a strain lacking the Rnf1 complex if the genes of the Fix protein complex were relocated behind the strong promoter of the S-layer protein but still failed to achieve the levels found with just the Rnf1 complex by itself. KEY POINTS: • The Rnf1 complex is integral to ammonium accumulation in A. vinelandii. • The Fix complex can be deleted and still achieve ammonium accumulation in A. vinelandii. • A. vinelandii can be engineered to increase the contribution of the Fix complex to ammonium accumulation.

Control of nitrogen fixation and ammonia excretion in Azorhizobium caulinodans

Due to the costly energy demands of nitrogen (N) fixation, diazotrophic bacteria have evolved complex regulatory networks that permit expression of the catalyst nitrogenase only under conditions of N starvation, whereas the same condition stimulates upregulation of high-affinity ammonia (NH₃) assimilation by glutamine synthetase (GS), preventing excess release of excess NH₃ for plants. Diazotrophic bacteria can be engineered to excrete NH₃ by interference with GS, however control is required to minimise growth penalties and prevent unintended provision of NH₃ to non-target plants. Here, we tested two strategies to control GS regulation and NH₃ excretion in our model cereal symbiont Azorhizobium caulinodans AcLP, a derivative of ORS571. We first attempted to recapitulate previous work where mutation of both P_II homologues glnB and glnK stimulated GS shutdown but found that one of these genes was essential for growth. Secondly, we expressed unidirectional adenylyl transferases (uATs) in a ΔglnE mutant of AcLP which permitted strong GS shutdown and excretion of NH₃ derived from N₂ fixation and completely alleviated negative feedback regulation on nitrogenase expression. We placed a uAT allele under control of the NifA-dependent promoter PnifH, permitting GS shutdown and NH₃ excretion specifically under microaerobic conditions, the same cue that initiates N₂ fixation, then deleted nifA and transferred a rhizopine nifA_L94Q/D95Q-rpoN controller plasmid into this strain, permitting coupled rhizopine-dependent activation of N₂ fixation and NH₃ excretion. This highly sophisticated and multi-layered control circuitry brings us a step closer to the development of a "synthetic symbioses” where N₂ fixation and NH₃ excretion could be specifically activated in diazotrophic bacteria colonising transgenic rhizopine producing cereals, targeting delivery of fixed N to the crop while preventing interaction with non-target plants.

Inoculation of cereal crops with associative diazotrophic bacteria that convert atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) into ammonia (NH₃) could be used to sustainably improve delivery of nitrogen to crops. However, due to the costly energy demands of N₂ fixation, bacteria restrict excess production of NH₃ and release to the plants. Diazotrophs can be engineered for excess NH₃ production and release, however genetic control is required to minimise growth penalties and prevent unintended provision of NH₃ to non-target weed species. Here, we engineer coupled control of N₂ fixation and NH₃ release in response to the signalling molecule rhizopine supplemented in vitro. This control circuitry represents a prototype for the future development of a “synthetic symbiosis” where bacterial N₂ fixation and NH₃ excretion could be specifically activated following colonisation of transgenic rhizopine producing cereals in the field, minimising bacterial energy requirements and preventing provision of NH₃ to non-target plants.

Engineered plant control of associative nitrogen fixation

Inoculation of cereals with diazotrophic (N₂-fixing) bacteria offers a sustainable alternative to the application of nitrogen fertilizers in agriculture. While natural diazotrophs have evolved multilayered regulatory mechanisms that couple N₂ fixation with assimilation of the product NH₃ and prevent release to plants, genetic modifications can permit excess production and excretion of NH₃. However, a lack of stringent host-specificity for root colonization by the bacteria would allow growth promotion of target and nontarget plants species alike. Here, we exploit synthetic transkingdom signaling to establish plant host-specific control of the N₂-fixation catalyst nitrogenase in Azorhizobium caulinodans occupying barley roots. This work demonstrates how partner-specific interactions can be established to avoid potential growth promotion of nontarget plants.

Engineering N₂-fixing symbioses between cereals and diazotrophic bacteria represents a promising strategy to sustainably deliver biologically fixed nitrogen (N) in agriculture. We previously developed novel transkingdom signaling between plants and bacteria, through plant production of the bacterial signal rhizopine, allowing control of bacterial gene expression in association with the plant. Here, we have developed both a homozygous rhizopine producing (RhiP) barley line and a hybrid rhizopine uptake system that conveys upon our model bacterium Azorhizobium caulinodans ORS571 (Ac) 10³-fold improved sensitivity for rhizopine perception. Using this improved genetic circuitry, we established tight rhizopine-dependent transcriptional control of the nitrogenase master regulator nifA and the N metabolism σ-factor rpoN, which drove nitrogenase expression and activity in vitro and in situ by bacteria colonizing RhiP barley roots. Although in situ nitrogenase activity was suboptimally effective relative to the wild-type strain, activation was specific to RhiP barley and was not observed on the roots of wild-type plants. This work represents a key milestone toward the development of a synthetic plant-controlled symbiosis in which the bacteria fix N₂ only when in contact with the desired host plant and are prevented from interaction with nontarget plant species.

Genetic determinants of ammonium excretion in nifL mutants of Azotobacter vinelandii

The ubiquitous diazotrophic soil bacterium Azotobacter vinelandii has been extensively studied as a model organism for biological nitrogen fixation (BNF). In A. vinelandii, BNF is regulated by the NifL-NifA two-component system, where NifL acts as an anti-activator that tightly controls the activity of the nitrogen fixation specific transcriptional activator, NifA, in response to redox, nitrogen, and carbon status. While several studies reported mutations in A. vinelandii nifL resulted in the deregulation of nitrogenase expression and the release of large quantities of ammonium, knowledge about the specific determinants for this ammonium-excreting phenotype is lacking. In this work, we report that only specific disruptions of nifL lead to large quantities of ammonium accumulated in liquid culture (∼12 mM). The ammonium excretion phenotype is solely associated with deletions of NifL domains combined with the insertion of a promoter sequence in the opposite orientation to nifLA transcription. We further demonstrated that the strength of the inserted promoter could influence the amounts of ammonium excreted by affecting rnf1 gene expression as an additional requirement for ammonium excretion. These ammonium-excreting nifL mutants significantly stimulate the transfer of fixed nitrogen to rice. This work defines discrete determinants that bring about A. vinelandii ammonium excretion and demonstrates that strains can be generated through simple gene editing to provide promising biofertilizers capable of transferring nitrogen to crops. Importance There is a considerable interest in the engineering of ammonium-excreting bacteria for use in agriculture to promote the growth of plants under fixed nitrogen-limiting conditions. This work defines discrete determinants that bring about A. vinelandii ammonium excretion and demonstrates that strains can be generated through simple gene editing to provide promising biofertilizers capable of transferring nitrogen to crops.

Improved Stability of Engineered Ammonia Production in the Plant-Symbiont Azospirillum brasilense

Bioavailable nitrogen is the limiting nutrient for most agricultural food production. Associative diazotrophs can colonize crop roots and fix their own bioavailable nitrogen from the atmosphere. Wild-type (WT) associative diazotrophs, however, do not release fixed nitrogen in culture and are not known to directly transfer fixed nitrogen resources to plants. Efforts to engineer diazotrophs for plant nitrogen provision as an alternative to chemical fertilization have yielded several strains that transiently release ammonia. However, these strains suffer from selection pressure for nonproducers, which rapidly deplete ammonia accumulating in culture, likely limiting their potential for plant growth promotion (PGP). Here we report engineered Azospirillum brasilense strains with significantly extend ammonia production lifetimes of up to 32 days in culture. Our approach relies on multicopy genetic redundancy of a unidirectional adenylyltransferase (uAT) as a posttranslational mechanism to induce ammonia release via glutamine synthetase deactivation. Testing our multicopy stable strains with the model monocot Setaria viridis in hydroponic monoassociation reveals improvement in plant growth promotion compared to single copy strains. In contrast, inoculation of Zea mays in nitrogen-poor, nonsterile soil does not lead to increased PGP relative to WT, suggesting strain health, resource competition, or colonization capacity in soil may also be limiting factors. In this context, we show that while engineered strains fix more nitrogen per cell compared to WT strains, the expression strength of multiple uAT copies needs to be carefully balanced to maximize ammonia production rates and avoid excessive fitness defects caused by excessive glutamine synthetase shutdown.