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Kimenyi NN, Kimenyi KM, Amugune NO, Getahun MN. Genetic connectivity of trypanosomes between tsetse-infested and tsetse-free areas of Kenya. Parasitology 2022; 149:285-297. [PMID: 35264263 PMCID: PMC11010566 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182021001815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Revised: 09/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The prevalence rates of trypanosomes, including those that require cyclical transmission by tsetse flies, are widely distributed in Africa. Trypanosoma brucei and Trypanosoma congolense are actively maintained in regions where there are no tsetse flies although at low frequencies. Whether this could be due to an independent evolutionary origin or multiple introduction of trypanosomes due to continuous movement of livestock between tsetse-free and -infested areas is not known. Thus, the aim of the study was to carry out microsatellite genotyping to explore intra-specific genetic diversity between T. (Trypanozoon), T. congolense and Trypanosoma vivax from the two regions: tsetse infested and tsetse free. Microsatellite genotyping showed geographical origin-based structuring among T. (Trypanozoon) isolates. There was a clear separation between isolates from the two regions signalling the potential of microsatellite markers as diagnostic markers for T. brucei and Trypanosoma evansi isolates. Trypanosoma vivax isolates also clustered largely based on the sampling location with a significant differentiation between the two locations. However, our results revealed that T. congolense isolates from Northern Kenya are not genetically separated from those from Coastal Kenya. Therefore, these isolates are likely introduced in the region through animal movement. Our results demonstrate the occurrence of both genetic connectivity as well as independent evolutionary origin, depending on the trypanosome species between the two ecologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomi N. Kimenyi
- International Center for Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), P. O. Box 30772, Nairobi00100, Kenya
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Kelvin M. Kimenyi
- Center for Biotechnology and Bioinformatics (CEBIB), The University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Nelson O. Amugune
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Merid N. Getahun
- International Center for Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), P. O. Box 30772, Nairobi00100, Kenya
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Algehani AMG, Jaber FA, Khan A, Alsulami MN. Review on trypanosomiasis and their prevalence in some country on the Red Sea. BRAZ J BIOL 2021; 83:e251671. [PMID: 34706027 DOI: 10.1590/1519-6984.251671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosomiasis is a protozoan infection affecting both human and animals in almost all parts of the world. It can affect a very large range of domestic and wild hosts including camelids, equines, cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs, dogs and other carnivores, deer, gazelles and elephants. This review paper was designed to address the effect of this economically important disease in countries on the Red Sea, especially in Egypt, Sudan, Somalia, and Saudi Arabia during the period 2010 to 2020. The prevalence of trypanosomiasis is different between these countries due to different types of diagnostic methods (Giemsa-stained blood smears, Hematocrit centrifugation, Serological test, and molecular analysis PCR) used and differential distribution of vector (Tse tse) flies. In current review, retrospective studies of published literature on distribution and prevalence of Trypanosoma evansi infection in the Red Sea Countries was conducted [Google Scholar and PubMed were used to retrieve the published literature from 2000-2020. A total of 77 published articles met the eligibility criteria and were reviewed. A total of 16 reports have been reported on the prevalence and distribution of Trypnosoma evansi infection in the Red Sea Countries have been from 2010-2020]. According to the published literature, we can say that trypanosomiasis in camels are more prevalent in Sudan than in other countries, followed by 17% and 51.78% in both clinical and non-clinical cases. Hence, the reliable diagnostic tests should be used for rapid treatment or control of the disease as if not treated appropriately in early-stage, can lead to death of the camels.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M G Algehani
- University of Jeddah, College of Science, Biology Department, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - F A Jaber
- University of Jeddah, College of Science, Biology Department, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - A Khan
- Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Department of Zoology, Mardan, Pakistan
| | - M N Alsulami
- University of Jeddah, College of Science, Biology Department, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
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Devaux CA, Osman IO, Million M, Raoult D. Coxiella burnetii in Dromedary Camels ( Camelus dromedarius): A Possible Threat for Humans and Livestock in North Africa and the Near and Middle East? Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:558481. [PMID: 33251255 PMCID: PMC7674558 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.558481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The "One Health" concept recognizes that human health is connected to animal health and to the ecosystems. Coxiella burnetii-induced human Q fever is one of the most widespread neglected zoonosis. The main animal reservoirs responsible for C. burnetii transmission to humans are domesticated ruminants, primarily goats, sheep, and cattle. Although studies are still too sparse to draw definitive conclusions, the most recent C. burnetii serosurvey studies conducted in herds and farms in Africa, North Africa, Arabian Peninsula, and Asia highlighted that seroprevalence was strikingly higher in dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) than in other ruminants. The C. burnetii seroprevalence in camel herds can reach more than 60% in Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Sudan, and 70 to 80% in Algeria and Chad, respectively. The highest seroprevalence was in female camels with a previous history of abortion. Moreover, C. burnetii infection was reported in ticks of the Hyalomma dromedarii and Hyalomma impeltatum species collected on camels. Even if dromedary camels represent <3% of the domesticated ruminants in the countries of the Mediterranean basin Southern coast, these animals play a major socioeconomic role for millions of people who live in the arid zones of Africa, Middle East, and Asia. In Chad and Somalia, camels account for about 7 and 21% of domesticated ruminants, respectively. To meet the growing consumers demand of camel meat and milk (>5 million tons/year of both raw and pasteurized milk according to the Food and Agriculture Organization) sustained by a rapid increase of population (growth rate: 2.26-3.76 per year in North Africa), dromedary camel breeding tends to increase from the Maghreb to the Arabic countries. Because of possible long-term persistence of C. burnetii in camel hump adipocytes, this pathogen could represent a threat for herds and breeding farms and ultimately for public health. Because this review highlights a hyperendemia of C. burnetii in dromedary camels, a proper screening of herds and breeding farms for C. burnetii is urgently needed in countries where camel breeding is on the rise. Moreover, the risk of C. burnetii transmission from camel to human should be further evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian A. Devaux
- Aix-Marseille Univ, IRD, APHM, MEPHI, IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France
- CNRS, Marseille, France
| | - Ikram Omar Osman
- Aix-Marseille Univ, IRD, APHM, MEPHI, IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France
- Faculty of Sciences Ben-Ben-M'Sik, University Hassan II, Casablanca, Morocco
| | - Matthieu Million
- Aix-Marseille Univ, IRD, APHM, MEPHI, IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France
| | - Didier Raoult
- Aix-Marseille Univ, IRD, APHM, MEPHI, IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France
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Kamidi CM, Saarman NP, Dion K, Mireji PO, Ouma C, Murilla G, Aksoy S, Schnaufer A, Caccone A. Multiple evolutionary origins of Trypanosoma evansi in Kenya. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017; 11:e0005895. [PMID: 28880965 PMCID: PMC5605091 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2017] [Revised: 09/19/2017] [Accepted: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma evansi is the parasite causing surra, a form of trypanosomiasis in camels and other livestock, and a serious economic burden in Kenya and many other parts of the world. Trypanosoma evansi transmission can be sustained mechanically by tabanid and Stomoxys biting flies, whereas the closely related African trypanosomes T. brucei brucei and T. b. rhodesiense require cyclical development in tsetse flies (genus Glossina) for transmission. In this study, we investigated the evolutionary origins of T. evansi. We used 15 polymorphic microsatellites to quantify levels and patterns of genetic diversity among 41 T. evansi isolates and 66 isolates of T. b. brucei (n = 51) and T. b. rhodesiense (n = 15), including many from Kenya, a region where T. evansi may have evolved from T. brucei. We found that T. evansi strains belong to at least two distinct T. brucei genetic units and contain genetic diversity that is similar to that in T. brucei strains. Results indicated that the 41 T. evansi isolates originated from multiple T. brucei strains from different genetic backgrounds, implying independent origins of T. evansi from T. brucei strains. This surprising finding further suggested that the acquisition of the ability of T. evansi to be transmitted mechanically, and thus the ability to escape the obligate link with the African tsetse fly vector, has occurred repeatedly. These findings, if confirmed, have epidemiological implications, as T. brucei strains from different genetic backgrounds can become either causative agents of a dangerous, cosmopolitan livestock disease or of a lethal human disease, like for T. b. rhodesiense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine M. Kamidi
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, Kikuyu, Kenya
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Technology, School of Public Health and Community Development, Maseno University, Maseno, Kenya
- Yale School of Public Health, Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, New Haven, CT, United States of America
| | - Norah P. Saarman
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States of America
| | - Kirstin Dion
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States of America
| | - Paul O. Mireji
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, Kikuyu, Kenya
- Yale School of Public Health, Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, New Haven, CT, United States of America
- Centre for Geographic Medicine Research Coast, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kilifi, Kenya
| | - Collins Ouma
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Technology, School of Public Health and Community Development, Maseno University, Maseno, Kenya
| | - Grace Murilla
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, Kikuyu, Kenya
| | - Serap Aksoy
- Yale School of Public Health, Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, New Haven, CT, United States of America
| | - Achim Schnaufer
- Centre for Immunity, Infection & Evolution, and Institute of Immunology & Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Adalgisa Caccone
- Yale School of Public Health, Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, New Haven, CT, United States of America
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States of America
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Fereig RM, Mohamed SG, Mahmoud HY, AbouLaila MR, Guswanto A, Nguyen TT, Ahmed Mohamed AE, Inoue N, Igarashi I, Nishikawa Y. Seroprevalence of Babesia bovis , B. bigemina , Trypanosoma evansi , and Anaplasma marginale antibodies in cattle in southern Egypt. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2017; 8:125-131. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2016.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2016] [Revised: 10/19/2016] [Accepted: 10/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Koffi M, De Meeûs T, Séré M, Bucheton B, Simo G, Njiokou F, Salim B, Kaboré J, MacLeod A, Camara M, Solano P, Belem AMG, Jamonneau V. Population Genetics and Reproductive Strategies of African Trypanosomes: Revisiting Available Published Data. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015; 9:e0003985. [PMID: 26491968 PMCID: PMC4619596 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosomatidae are a dangerous family of Euglenobionta parasites that threaten the health and economy of millions of people around the world. More precisely describing the population biology and reproductive mode of such pests is not only a matter of pure science, but can also be useful for understanding parasite adaptation, as well as how parasitism, specialization (parasite specificity), and complex life cycles evolve over time. Studying this parasite’s reproductive strategies and population structure can also contribute key information to the understanding of the epidemiology of associated diseases; it can also provide clues for elaborating control programs and predicting the probability of success for control campaigns (such as vaccines and drug therapies), along with emergence or re-emergence risks. Population genetics tools, if appropriately used, can provide precise and useful information in these investigations. In this paper, we revisit recent data collected during population genetics surveys of different Trypanosoma species in sub-Saharan Africa. Reproductive modes and population structure depend not only on the taxon but also on the geographical location and data quality (absence or presence of DNA amplification failures). We conclude on issues regarding future directions of research, in particular vis-à-vis genotyping and sampling strategies, which are still relevant yet, too often, neglected issues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathurin Koffi
- Université Jean Lorougnon GUEDE, UFR Environnement-Santé, Laboratoire des Interactions Hôte-Microorganismes-Environnement et Evolution (LIHME), Daloa, Côte d'Ivoire
- * E-mail: (MK); (TDM)
| | - Thierry De Meeûs
- IRD, UMR 177 IRD-CIRAD INTERTRYP, Centre International de Recherche-Développement sur l’Elevage en zone Subhumide (CIRDES), Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina-Faso
- IRD, UMR177 IRD-CIRAD INTERTRYP, Campus International de Baillarguet, TA A-17/G, Montpellier, France
- * E-mail: (MK); (TDM)
| | - Modou Séré
- IRD, UMR 177 IRD-CIRAD INTERTRYP, Centre International de Recherche-Développement sur l’Elevage en zone Subhumide (CIRDES), Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina-Faso
| | - Bruno Bucheton
- IRD, UMR177 IRD-CIRAD INTERTRYP, Campus International de Baillarguet, TA A-17/G, Montpellier, France
- Programme National de Lutte contre la Trypanosomiase Humaine Africaine, Conakry, Guinée
| | - Gustave Simo
- University of Dschang, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biochemistry, Dschang, Cameroon
| | - Flobert Njiokou
- University of Yaoundé 1, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Animal Biology and Physiology, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Bashir Salim
- University of Khartoum, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Khartoum North, Sudan
- Parasites, Vectors and Vector-borne Diseases, Agricultural Research Council-Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Onderstepoort, South Africa
| | - Jacques Kaboré
- IRD, UMR 177 IRD-CIRAD INTERTRYP, Centre International de Recherche-Développement sur l’Elevage en zone Subhumide (CIRDES), Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina-Faso
- Université Polytechnique de Bobo-Dioulasso, UFR Sciences et Techniques, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | - Annette MacLeod
- University of Glasgow, Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Henry Wellcome Building of Comparative Medicine, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Mamadou Camara
- Programme National de Lutte contre la Trypanosomiase Humaine Africaine, Conakry, Guinée
| | - Philippe Solano
- IRD, UMR177 IRD-CIRAD INTERTRYP, Campus International de Baillarguet, TA A-17/G, Montpellier, France
| | - Adrien Marie Gaston Belem
- Université Polytechnique de Bobo-Dioulasso, UFR Sciences et Techniques, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | - Vincent Jamonneau
- IRD, UMR 177 IRD-CIRAD INTERTRYP, Centre International de Recherche-Développement sur l’Elevage en zone Subhumide (CIRDES), Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina-Faso
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Séré M, Kaboré J, Jamonneau V, Belem AMG, Ayala FJ, De Meeûs T. Null allele, allelic dropouts or rare sex detection in clonal organisms: simulations and application to real data sets of pathogenic microbes. Parasit Vectors 2014; 7:331. [PMID: 25027508 PMCID: PMC4223633 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-7-331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2014] [Accepted: 07/05/2014] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pathogens and their vectors are organisms whose ecology is often only accessible through population genetics tools based on spatio-temporal variability of molecular markers. However, molecular tools may present technical difficulties due to the masking of some alleles (allelic dropouts and/or null alleles), which tends to bias the estimation of heterozygosity and thus the inferences concerning the breeding system of the organism under study. This is especially critical in clonal organisms in which deviation from panmixia, as measured by Wright's FIS, can, in principle, be used to infer both the extent of clonality and structure in a given population. In particular, null alleles and allelic dropouts are locus specific and likely produce high variance of Wright's FIS across loci, as rare sex is expected to do. In this paper we propose a tool enabling to discriminate between consequences of these technical problems and those of rare sex. METHODS We have performed various simulations of clonal and partially clonal populations. We introduce allelic dropouts and null alleles in clonal data sets and compare the results with those that exhibit increasing rates of sexual recombination. We use the narrow relationship that links Wright's FIS to genetic diversity in purely clonal populations as assessment criterion, since this relationship disappears faster with sexual recombination than with amplification problems of certain alleles. RESULTS We show that the relevance of our criterion for detecting poorly amplified alleles depends partly on the population structure, the level of homoplasy and/or mutation rate. However, the interpretation of data becomes difficult when the number of poorly amplified alleles is above 50%. The application of this method to reinterpret published data sets of pathogenic clonal microbes (yeast and trypanosomes) confirms its usefulness and allows refining previous estimates concerning important pathogenic agents. CONCLUSION Our criterion of superimposing between the FIS expected under clonality and the observed FIS, is effective when amplification difficulties occur in low to moderate frequencies (20-30%).
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Affiliation(s)
- Modou Séré
- Centre International de Recherche-Développement sur l'Elevage en zone Subhumide (CIRDES), 01 BP 454 Bobo-Dioulasso 01, Burkina-Faso.
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Eberhardt A, Monje L, Zurvera D, Beldomenico P. Detection of Trypanosoma evansi infection in wild capybaras from Argentina using smear microscopy and real-time PCR assays. Vet Parasitol 2014; 202:226-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2014.02.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2013] [Revised: 02/04/2014] [Accepted: 02/14/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Ferreira GEM, dos Santos BN, Dorval MEC, Ramos TPB, Porrozzi R, Peixoto AA, Cupolillo E. The genetic structure of Leishmania infantum populations in Brazil and its possible association with the transmission cycle of visceral leishmaniasis. PLoS One 2012; 7:e36242. [PMID: 22606248 PMCID: PMC3350531 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0036242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2011] [Accepted: 03/31/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Leishmania infantum is the etiologic agent of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) in the Americas, Mediterranean basin and West and Central Asia. Although the geographic structure of L. infantum populations from the Old World have been described, few studies have addressed the population structure of this parasite in the Neotropical region. We employed 14 microsatellites to analyze the population structure of the L. infantum strains isolated from humans and dogs from most of the Brazilian states endemic for VL and from Paraguay. The results indicate a low genetic diversity, high inbreeding estimates and a depletion of heterozygotes, which together indicate a predominantly clonal breeding system, but signs of sexual events are also present. Three populations were identified from the clustering analysis, and they were well supported by F statistics inferences and partially corroborated by distance-based. POP1 (111 strains) was observed in all but one endemic area. POP2 (31 strains) is also well-dispersed, but it was the predominant population in Mato Grosso (MT). POP3 (31 strains) was less dispersed, and it was observed primarily in Mato Grosso do Sul (MS). Strains originated from an outbreak of canine VL in Southern Brazil were grouped in POP1 with those from Paraguay, which corroborates the hypothesis of dispersal from Northeastern Argentina and Paraguay. The distribution of VL in MS seems to follow the west-east construction of the Bolivia-Brazil pipeline from Corumbá municipality. This may have resulted in a strong association of POP3 and Lutzomyia cruzi, which is the main VL vector in Corumbá, and a dispersion of this population in this region that was shaped by human interference. This vector also occurs in MT and may influence the structure of POP2. This paper presents significant advances in the understanding of the population structure of L. infantum in Brazil and its association with eco-epidemiological aspects of VL.
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McInnes LM, Dargantes AP, Ryan UM, Reid SA. Microsatellite typing and population structuring of Trypanosoma evansi in Mindanao, Philippines. Vet Parasitol 2011; 187:129-39. [PMID: 22230026 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2011.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2011] [Revised: 12/03/2011] [Accepted: 12/13/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma evansi, a blood-borne protozoan parasite with an extensive geographical range is the causative agent of the livestock disease known as surra. A total of 140 out of 179 T. evansi isolates collected between 2006 and 2007 from 44 villages (comprising of 16 reported surra outbreaks) in 3 provinces (Agusan del Sur (ADS), Surigao del Sur (SDS) and Agusan del Norte (ADN)) in Mindanao, Philippines were each successfully genotyped using a suite of 7 polymorphic microsatellites. The study identified 16 multi locus genotypes (MLG) within the T. evansi isolates and evidence of the spread of surra outbreaks from one village to another, most likely due to the movement of infected animals. Genotyping provided evidence of population sub-structuring with 3 populations (I, II and III (only 1 isolate)) identified. The most abundant population was II, which was the predominant population in ADS and SDS (p=0.022). In addition, buffalo mortality was statistically higher in outbreak areas associated with isolates from population I (13.6%) than with isolates from population II (6.9%) (p=0.047). The present study has highlighted the utility of microsatellite loci to improve understanding of the epidemiology of T. evansi and in tracking surra outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- L M McInnes
- Division of Health Sciences, School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Perth, WA 6150, Australia.
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