Correlates of multi-drug non-susceptibility in enteric bacteria isolated from Kenyan children with acute diarrhea

β-Lactamase and Macrolide Resistance Gene Carriage in Escherichia coli Isolates Among Children Discharged From Inpatient Care in Western Kenya: A Cross-sectional Study

Background

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global threat to infectious disease control, particularly among recently hospitalized children. We sought to determine the prevalence and mitigating factors of resistance in enteric Escherichia coli among children discharged from health facilities in western Kenya.

Methods

Between June 2016 and November 2019, children aged 1 to 59 months were enrolled at the point of discharge from the hospital. E coli was isolated by microbiological culture from rectal swabs at baseline. β-Lactamases and macrolide resistance-conferring genes were detected by polymerase chain reaction. A modified Poisson regression model was used to assess the predictors mph(A) and CTX-M-type extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL).

Results

Of the 238 children whose E coli isolates were tested, 91 (38.2%) and 109 (45.8%) had detectable CTX-M-type ESBL and mph(A) genes, respectively. Antibiotic treatment during hospitalization (adjusted prevalence ratio [aPR], 2.47; 95% CI, 1.12-5.43; P = .025), length of hospitalization (aPR, 1.42; 95% CI, 1.00-2.01; P = .052), and the practice of open defecation (aPR, 2.47; 95% CI, 1.40-4.36; P = .002) were independent predictors for CTX-M-type ESBL and mph(A) genes. Pneumococcal vaccination was associated with a 43% lower likelihood of CTX-M-type ESBL (aPR, 0.57; 95% CI, .38-.85; P = .005), while measles vaccination was associated with a 32% lower likelihood of mph(A) genes (aPR, 0.68; 95% CI, .49-.93; P = .017) in E coli isolates.

Conclusions

Among children discharged from the hospital, history of vaccination, shorter hospital stay, lack of in-hospital antibiotic exposure, and improved sanitation were associated with a lower likelihood of AMR genes. To mitigate the continued spread of AMR, AMR control programs should consider strategies beyond antimicrobial stewardship, including improvements in sanitation, increased vaccine coverage, and the development of novel vaccines.

How Antimicrobial Resistance Is Linked to Climate Change: An Overview of Two Intertwined Global Challenges

Globally, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and climate change (CC) are two of the top health emergencies, and can be considered as two interlinked public health priorities. The complex commonalities between AMR and CC should be deeply investigated in a One Health perspective. Here, we provided an overview of the current knowledge about the relationship between AMR and CC. Overall, the studies included pointed out the need for applying a systemic approach to planetary health. Firstly, CC increasingly brings humans and animals into contact, leading to outbreaks of zoonotic and vector-borne diseases with pandemic potential. Although it is well-established that antimicrobial use in human, animal and environmental sectors is one of the main drivers of AMR, the COVID-19 pandemic is exacerbating the current scenario, by influencing the use of antibiotics, personal protective equipment, and biocides. This also results in higher concentrations of contaminants (e.g., microplastics) in natural water bodies, which cannot be completely removed from wastewater treatment plants, and which could sustain the AMR spread. Our overview underlined the lack of studies on the direct relationship between AMR and CC, and encouraged further research to investigate the multiple aspects involved, and its effect on human health.

Antibiotic resistance genes of public health importance in livestock and humans in an informal urban community in Nepal

Efforts to mitigate the increasing emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) will benefit from a One Health perspective, as over half of animal antimicrobials are also considered medically important in humans, and AMR can be maintained in the environment. This is especially pertinent to low- and middle-income countries and in community settings, where an estimated 80% of all antibiotics are used. This study features AMR genes found among humans, animals, and water at an urban informal settlement in Nepal with intensifying livestock production. We sampled humans, chickens, ducks, swine, and water clustered by household, as well as rodents and shrews near dwellings, concurrently in time in July 2017 in southeastern Kathmandu along the Manohara river. Real-time qualitative PCR was performed to screen for 88 genes. Our results characterize the animal-human-environmental interfaces related to the occurrence of specific resistance genes (bla_SHV-1 (SHV(238G240E) strain), QnrS, ermC, tetA, tetB, aacC2, aadA1) associated with antibiotics of global health importance that comprise several drug classes, including aminoglycosides, beta-lactams, tetracyclines, macrolides, and fluoroquinolones. By characterizing risk factors across AMR genes of public health importance, this research highlights potential transmission pathways for further investigation and provides prioritization of community-based prevention and intervention efforts for disrupting AMR transmission of critically important antibiotics used in both humans and animals in Nepal.

Antimicrobial resistance including Extended Spectrum Beta Lactamases (ESBL) among E. coli isolated from kenyan children at hospital discharge

Background

Children who have been discharged from hospital in sub-Saharan Africa remain at substantial risk of mortality in the post-discharge period. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) may be an important factor. We sought to determine the prevalence and risk factors associated with AMR in commensal Escherichia coli(E. coli) from Kenyan children at the time of discharge.

Methodology/Principle findings

Fecal samples were collected from 406 children aged 1–59 months in western Kenya at the time of discharge from hospital and cultured for E. coli. Susceptibility to ampicillin, ceftriaxone, cefotaxime, ceftazidime, cefoxitin, imipenem, ciprofloxacin, gentamicin, combined amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, azithromycin, and chloramphenicol was determined by disc diffusion according to guidelines from the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). Poisson regression was used to determine associations between participant characteristics and the presence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL) producing E. coli. Non-susceptibility to ampicillin (95%), gentamicin (44%), ceftriaxone (46%), and the presence of ESBL (44%) was high. Receipt of antibiotics during the hospitalization was associated with the presence of ESBL (aPR = 2.23; 95% CI: 1.29–3.83) as was being hospitalized within the prior year (aPR = 1.32 [1.07–1.69]). Open defecation (aPR = 2.02; 95% CI: 1.39–2.94), having a toilet shared with other households (aPR = 1.49; 95% CI: 1.17–1.89), and being female (aPR = 1.42; 95% CI: 1.15–1.76) were associated with carriage of ESBL E. coli

Conclusions/Significance

AMR is common among isolates of E. coli from children at hospital discharge in Kenya, including nearly half having detectable ESBL.

Children who have been hospitalized in sub-Saharan Africa remain at a high risk of death and morbidity for at least 6 months following discharge. These children may harbor AMR in commensal bacteria following hospitalization, which may be associated with poor outcomes. There are limited data describing AMR and risk factors that are associated with AMR carriage at hospital discharge. In this cross-sectional study of Kenyan children under 5 years of age discharged from hospitals, we found AMR to be high. Children who received antibiotics in the hospital, had limited access to improved sanitation, and who were female had the highest prevalence of ESBL-producing E. coli.

Narratives of veterinary drug use in northern Tanzania and consequences for drug stewardship strategies in low-income and middle-income countries

INTRODUCTION

Awareness-raising campaigns play a central role in efforts to combat drug resistance. These campaigns assume that knowledge deficits drive poor practices that increase resistance. Therefore, increasing awareness will promote prudent practices and reduce resistance. However, most awareness campaigns have been developed and evaluated in high-income and public health settings. Consequently, it is not clear whether these campaigns are effective in low-income and middle-income countries and/or within animal health settings.

METHODS

Focus group discussions and in-depth interviews were used to collect narratives of veterinary drug use among Maasai pastoralists (n=70), animal health professionals (n=10) and veterinary drug sellers (n=5). Thematic analysis was used to identify recurring themes across narratives and groups.

RESULTS

Narratives of Maasai and animal health professionals indicated that Maasai treated their livestock with limited input from the professional sector and that non-prudent treatment practices were observed (eg, using antimicrobials as 'energizers'). Professionals linked these practices to knowledge and attitudinal deficits among the Maasai, while Maasai narratives highlighted the importance of climatic uncertainties and cultural beliefs surrounding veterinary care.

CONCLUSION

Narratives of veterinary drug use from animal health professionals are consistent with the knowledge deficit assumption guiding awareness-raising efforts. In contrast, Maasai narratives highlight how animal health practices are patterned by cultural norms interacting with factors largely outside of Maasai control, including a constrained professional veterinary sector. If these cultural and structural contexts remain unconsidered in awareness-raising strategies, current campaigns are unlikely to motivate practices necessary to limit drug resistance, especially within low-income and middle-income settings.

Molecular characterization of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli toxins and colonization factors in children under five years with acute diarrhea attending Kisii Teaching and Referral Hospital, Kenya

Background

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) is one of the leading causes of infectious diarrhea in children. There are no licensed vaccines against ETEC. This study aimed at characterizing Escherichia coli for ETEC enterotoxins and colonization factors from children < 5 years with acute diarrhea and had not taken antibiotics prior to seeking medical attention at the hospital.

Methods

A total of 225 randomly selected archived E. coli strains originally isolated from 225 children with acute diarrhea were cultured. DNA was extracted and screened by multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for three ETEC toxins. All positives were then screened for 11 colonization factors by PCR.

Results

Out of 225 E. coli strains tested, 23 (10.2%) were ETEC. Heat-stable toxin (ST) gene was detected in 16 (69.6%). ETEC isolates with heat-stable toxin of human origin (STh) and heat-stable toxin of porcine origin (STp) distributed as 11 (68.8%) and 5 (31.2%) respectively. Heat-labile toxin gene (LT) was detected in 5 (21.7%) of the ETEC isolates. Both ST and LT toxin genes were detected in 2 (8.7%) of the ETEC isolates. CF genes were detected in 14 (60.9%) ETEC strains with a majority having CS6 6 (42.9%) gene followed by a combination of CFA/I + CS21 gene detected in 3 (21.4%). CS14, CS3, CS7 and a combination of CS5 + CS6, CS2 + CS3 genes were detected equally in 1 (7.1%) ETEC isolate each. CFA/I, CS4, CS5, CS2, CS17/19, CS1/PCFO71 and CS21 genes tested were not detected. We did not detect CF genes in 9 (39.1%) ETEC isolates. More CFs were associated with ETEC strains with ST genes.

Conclusion

ETEC strains with ST genes were the most common and had the most associated CFs. A majority of ETEC strains had CS6 gene. In 9 (39.1%) of the evaluated ETEC isolates, we did not detect an identifiable CF.

Multidrug-resistant enteric pathogens in older children and adults with diarrhea in Bangladesh: epidemiology and risk factors

BACKGROUND

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global public health threat and is increasingly prevalent among enteric pathogens in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). However, the burden of multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs) in older children, adults, and elderly patients with acute diarrhea in LMICs is poorly understood. This study's aim was to characterize the prevalence of MDR enteric pathogens isolated from patients with acute diarrhea in Dhaka, Bangladesh, and assess a wide range of risk factors associated with MDR.

METHODS

This study was a secondary analysis of data collected from children over 5 years, adults, and elderly patients with acute diarrhea at the International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh Dhaka Hospital between March 2019 and March 2020. Clinical, historical, socio-environmental information, and a stool sample for culture and antimicrobial susceptibility testing were collected from each patient. Univariate statistics and multiple logistic regression were used to assess the prevalence of MDR among enteric pathogens and the association between independent variables and presence of MRDOs among culture-positive patients.

RESULTS

A total of 1198 patients had pathogens isolated by stool culture with antimicrobial susceptibility results. Among culture-positive patients, the prevalence of MDR was 54.3%. The prevalence of MDR was highest in Aeromonas spp. (81.5%), followed by Campylobacter spp. (72.1%), Vibrio cholerae (28.1%), Shigella spp. (26.2%), and Salmonella spp. (5.2%). Factors associated with having MDRO in multiple logistic regression included longer transport time to hospital (>90 min), greater stool frequency, prior antibiotic use prior to hospital presentation, and non-flush toilet use. However, pseudo-R2 was low 0.086, indicating that other unmeasured variables need to be considered to build a more robust predictive model of MDR.

CONCLUSIONS

MDR enteric pathogens were common in this study population with clinical, historical, and socio-environmental risk factors associated with MDROs. These findings may help guide clinical decision-making regarding antibiotic use and selection in patients at greatest risk of complications due to MDROs. Further prospective research is urgently needed to determine what additional factors place patients at greatest risk of MDRO, and the best strategies to mitigate the spread of MDR in enteric pathogens.

1H nuclear magnetic resonance-based metabolite profiling of guava leaf extract: an attempt to develop a prototype for standardization of plant extracts

Background

Herbal medicines are fast gaining popularity. However, their acceptability by modern practitioners is low which is often due to lack of standardization. Several approaches towards standardization of herbals have been employed. The current study attempted to recognize key peaks from ¹H NMR spectra which together would comprise of a spectral fingerprint relating to efficacy of Psidium guajava (guava) leaf extract as an antidiarrhoeal when a number of unidentified active principles are involved.

Methods

Ninety samples of guava leaves were collected from three locations over three seasons. Hydroalcoholic (water and ethanol, 50:50) extracts of these samples were prepared and their ¹H NMR spectra were acquired. Spectra were also obtained for quercetin, ferulic acid and gallic acid as standards. Eight bioassays reflecting different stages of diarrhoeal pathogenesis were undertaken and based on pre-decided cut-offs, the extracts were classified as ‘good’ or ‘poor’ extracts. The bioactivity data was then correlated with the ¹H NMR profiles using Regression or Orthogonal Partial Least Square-Discriminant Analysis (OPLS-DA).

Results

OPLS-DA showed seasonal and regional segregation of extracts. Significant models were established for seven bioassays, namely those for anti-bacterial activity against Shigella flexneri and Vibrio cholerae, adherence of E. coli, invasion of E. coli and S. flexneri and production and binding of toxin produced by V. cholerae. It was observed that none of the extracts were good or bad across all the bioassays. The spectral analysis showed multiple peaks correlating with a particular activity. Based on NMR and LC-MS/MS, it was noted that the extracts contained quercetin, ferulic acid and gallic acid. However, they did not correlate with the peaks that segregated extracts with good and poor activity.

Conclusions

The current study identified key peaks in ¹H NMR spectra contributing to the anti-diarrhoeal activity of guava leaf extracts. The approach of using spectral fingerprinting employed in the present study can thus be used as a prototype towards standardization of plant extracts with respect to efficacy.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12906-021-03221-5.

Clinical and socio-environmental determinants of multidrug-resistant vibrio cholerae 01 in older children and adults in Bangladesh

Objectives:

Few studies have evaluated determinants of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Vibrio cholerae O1 in older children and adults. This study aimed to characterize the prevalence of MDR V. cholerae O1 and associated risk factors among patients over five years of age in Bangladesh.

Methods:

Stool culture and antimicrobial susceptibility testing were performed as a part of a larger study at Dhaka Hospital in Bangladesh from March 2019–March 2020. Univariate statistics and multiple logistic regression were used to assess the association between a range of variables and MDR V. cholerae O1.

Results:

MDR was found in 175 of 623 (28.1%) V. cholerae O1 isolates. High levels of resistance were found to erythromycin (99.2%), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (99.7%), and ampicillin (88.9%), while susceptibility was high to tetracyclines (99.7%), azithromycin (99.2%), ciprofloxacin (99.8%), and cephalosporins (98.6%). MDR was associated with prior antibiotic use, longer transport time to hospital, higher income, non-flush toilet use, greater stool frequency, lower blood pressure, lower mid-upper arm circumference, and lower percent dehydration.

Conclusions:

MDR V. cholerae O1 was common among patients over five in an urban hospital in Bangladesh. Significant factors associated with MDR may be actionable in identifying patients with a high likelihood of MDR.

Climate change and antibiotic resistance: a deadly combination

Climate change is driven primarily by humanity's use of fossil fuels and the resultant greenhouse gases from their combustion. The effects of climate change on human health are myriad and becomingly increasingly severe as the pace of climate change accelerates. One relatively underreported intersection between health and climate change is that of infections, particularly antibiotic-resistant infections. In this perspective review, the aspects of climate change that have already, will, and could possibly impact the proliferation and dissemination of antibiotic resistance are discussed.

The effect of acute malnutrition on enteric pathogens, moderate-to-severe diarrhoea, and associated mortality in the Global Enteric Multicenter Study cohort: a post-hoc analysis

Background

Host vulnerabilities associated with acute malnutrition could facilitate the ability of specific enteric pathogens to cause diarrhoea and associated mortality. Using data from the Global Enteric Multicenter Study, we assessed whether acute malnutrition modifies the association between common enteric pathogens and moderate-to-severe diarrhoea, and whether associations between enteric pathogens and death were modified by acute malnutrition.

Methods

Children with moderate-to-severe diarrhoea and age-matched and community-matched controls were included in this post-hoc analysis if their mid-upper arm circumference had been measured and if they were older than 6 months of age. Acute malnutrition was defined as mid-upper arm circumference below 12·5 cm, capturing both severe acute malnutrition (<11·5 cm) and moderate acute malnutrition (≥11·5 cm and <12·5 cm). We tested whether acute malnutrition modified associations between enteric pathogens and moderate-to-severe diarrhoea in conditional logistic regression models. Among children with moderate-to-severe diarrhoea, Cox proportional hazards regression evaluated the modifying effect of acute malnutrition on the relationship between pathogens and 60-day fatality rate.

Findings

The age, site, and co-infection adjusted odds ratios (aORs) for moderate-to-severe diarrhoea associated with typical enteropathogenic Escherichia coli among children aged 6–11 months was 2·08 (95% CI 1·14–3·79) in children with acute malnutrition, and 0·97 (0·77–1·23) in children with better nutritional status, compared with healthy controls. Enterotoxigenic E coli producing heat-stable toxin among children aged 12–23 months also had a stronger association with moderate-to-severe diarrhoea in children with acute malnutrition (aOR 7·60 [2·63–21·95]) than among similarly aged children with better nutritional status (aOR 2·39 [1·76–3·25]). Results for Shigella spp, norovirus, and sapovirus suggested they had a stronger association with moderate-to-severe diarrhoea than other pathogens among children with better nutritional status, although Shigella spp remained associated with moderate-to-severe diarrhoea in both nutritional groups. 92 (64%) of 144 children with moderate-to-severe diarrhoea who died had acute malnutrition. Pathogen-specific 60-day fatality rates for all pathogens were higher among children with acute malnutrition, but no individual pathogen had a significantly larger increase in its relative association with mortality.

Interpretation

Acute malnutrition might strengthen associations between specific pathogens and moderate-to-severe diarrhoea. However, the strong link between acute malnutrition and mortality during moderate-to-severe diarrhoea in children is not limited to specific infections, and affects a broad spectrum of enteric pathogens. Interventions addressing acute malnutrition could be an effective way to lower the mortality of both childhood malnutrition and diarrhoea.

Funding

The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

A randomized open label efficacy clinical trial of oral guava leaf decoction in patients with acute infectious diarrhoea

Background

Diarrhoea is amongst the first ten causes of death and its treatment faces an increased threat of drug resistance. Previous studies on the guava leaf decoction (GLD) revealed its suitability for use in infectious diarrhoea of unknown etiology.

Objective

The objective of this trial was to establish efficacy, dose and safety of GLD prepared from the Indian Sardar variety in adults with acute infectious diarrhoea.

Methods

The current trial was an open efficacy randomized 5-day, parallel group multi-arm interventional study. Amongst 137 adults (18–60 years) suffering with acute diarrhoea, 109 were included (57% females, 43% males). Three doses of GLD (6-leaf, 10-leaf and 14-leaf) were compared with controls receiving oral rehydration solution. Decrease in stool frequency and improvement in consistency were the outcomes measured. The data was analyzed using ANOVA, Tukey's post-hoc test, Kruscal-Wallis test and Chi-Square test where applicable.

Results

The trial showed that the 14-leaf (7.4 g) decoction was the most effective. Administration of the decoction, thrice daily helped the patients regain normalcy in 72 h as opposed to 120 h in controls. Safety of the intervention was reflected by normal levels of haemoglobin, liver and kidney parameters. No adverse events were reported.

Conclusion

The 14 leaves decoction was a safe treatment for adult acute uncomplicated diarrhoea of unknown etiology. Moreover due to component synergy and divergent mechanisms of action, it could possibly combat the generation of drug resistance and destruction of gut microbiota. Hence GLD has the potential for development as a first line treatment for diarrhoea.

Trial registration

Trial was registered with Clinical Trials Registry - India (CTRI registration number: CTRI/2016/07/007095). The trial was retrospectively registered.

Epidemiological patterns and antimicrobial resistance of bacterial diarrhea among children in Nairobi City, Kenya

AIM

Determine the prevalence of enteric bacterial pathogens and their antimicrobial resistance among diarrheic children in Nairobi City, Kenya.

BACKGROUND

Regardless of enteric bacterial pathogens being a major cause of gastroenteritis in children, their occurrence and antimicrobial resistance patterns reveals regional spatial and temporal variation.

METHODS

In a cross-sectional study, a total of 374 children below five years presenting with diarrhea at Mbagathi County Hospital were recruited. Stool microbiology test was used to detect enteric bacterial infection. Antimicrobial resistance was determined using the disk diffusion method.

RESULTS

Diarrheagenic E. coli (36.4%) was the leading species followed by Shigella (3.2%), Salmonella (2.4%), Campylobacter (1.6%), Yersinia (1.3%) and Aeromonas (1.1%) species. Escherichia coli pathotyping revealed that 20.9%, 4.0%, 10.2% and 0.5% of the study participants were infected with enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC), enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) and enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC) pure isolates while the prevalence of mixed pathotype infections was 0.3% for EAEC/EPEC/ETEC and 0.5% for EAEC/ETEC. Shigella sero-grouping revealed that 0.5%, 0.3%, 1.9%, and 0.5% were infected with Shigella boydii, Shigella dysentriae, Shigella flexneri and Shigella sonnei pure isolates. Shigella species and E. coli co-infection was detected in 2.4% of the children, specifically, 1.1% for EAEC/Shigella boydii, 0.5% for EAEC/Shigella dysentriae and 0.3% in each case of EAEC/Shigella sonnei, EPEC/Shigella flexneri and ETEC/Shigella flexneri co-infections. Most of the isolates were resistant to commonly prescribed antibiotics.

CONCLUSION

There was a high prevalence of enteric bacterial pathogens and co-infection alters epidemiological dynamics of bacterial diarrhea in children. Continuous antibiotic resistance surveillance is justified because the pathogens were highly resistant to commonly prescribed antimicrobials.

Antibiotic Susceptibility Pattern of Enterobacteriaceae Isolated from Raw Meat and Ghanaian Coin Currencies at Cape Coast Metropolis, Ghana: The Public Health Implication

Introduction:

The emergence and upsurge of Multiple Antibiotic Resistant (MDR) Enterobacteriaceae in the environment is a cause of concern as this can result in an outbreak and spread to healthcare settings. MDR Enterobacteriaceae have been associated with high morbidity and mortality due to delay in selecting and delivering active therapy in time.

Aims & Objectives:

The study was conducted to investigate the level of contamination of raw meat and Ghanaian coins in circulation at Cape Coast Metropolis. In all, 10 raw meat were sampled each from chevron and beef from Kotokuraba market, and 400 Ghanaian coin currencies retrieved from food vendors, students, transport operators and banks were used in this study.

Materials & Methods:

The Enterobacteriaceae species isolated were tested for their susceptibility to Ampicillin, Tetracycline (TET), Gentamicin (GEN), Cotrimoxazole (COT), Cefuroxime (CRX), Cefixime (CXM), Cefotaxime (CTX), Penicillin (PEN), Cloxacillin (CXC), Erythromycin (ERY) and Amikacin (AMK) antibiotics using Mueller-Hinton agar antibiotic diffusion technique. Of the isolated Enterobacteriaceae, 30% and 62% from chevron and beef respectively and 14.17%, 13.75% and 10.63% from food vendors, students and transport operators respectively showed resistance to some of the antibiotics tested.

Results & Discussion:

8.6% of the Escherichia coli (E. coli) isolated from chevon were resistant to CRXr-CHLr-AMPr-COTr-GEMr and 15.5% of CRXi-CHLi-AMPr-TETr-COTr from beef. 40.0% of E. coli isolated from coin currencies were resistant to CRXr-CHLr-AMPr-TETr-CTXr, 50.0% of Enterobacter spp to CRXr-CHLr-AMPr-TETr-CTXr, 16.67% of Proteus spp to CRXi-CHLi-AMPr-TETr-AMKi, 40% Pseudomonas spp to CRXr-AMPr-TETr-AMKi and 100% of Enterobacter spp to CRXr-AMPr-TETi-CTXr.

Conclusion:

The multidrug-resistant Enterobacteriaceae isolates from circulating Ghanaian coins and raw meats in the Cape Coast metropolis is an indication of an impending danger which requires immediate attention to prevent a possible outbreak and spread from the society to the hospital setting.

Paediatric Salmonellosis-Differences between Tropical and Sub-Tropical Regions of Queensland, Australia

Salmonellosis is an important cause of morbidity in tropical regions.This study aims to describe the epidemiology of non-typhoidal Salmonellae (NTS) in children presenting to public hospitals in Queensland, Australia, over the past 20 years, with a focus on differences between tropical and sub-tropical zones in the region. This is a retrospective and descriptive cohort study of 8162 NTS positive samples collected in 0–17-year-olds from the Queensland public hospital pathology database (Auslab) over a 20-year period from 1997 to 2016. There were 2951 (36.2%) positive NTS samples collected in tropical zones and 5211 (63.8%) in the sub-tropical zones of Queensland, with a total of 8162 over the region. The tropical zone contributed a disproportionately higher number of positive NTS samples by population sub-analysis. Of the specimens collected, 7421 (90.92%) were faecal, 505 (6.2%) blood, 161 (1.97%) urine, 13 (0.16%) cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and 62 of other origin. Other categories of specimen types isolated include swab, fluid, aspirate, lavage, bone, tissue, isolate and pus, and these were not included in sub-analysis. The most commonly identified serovars were Salmonella Typhimurium, Salmonella Virchow and Salmonella Saintpaul. This is the first and largest study that emphasises the high burden of invasive and non-invasive NTS infections resulting in hospital presentations in the paediatric population of tropical north Queensland, compared to the sub-tropics.

Identification of risk factors associated with carriage of resistant Escherichia coli in three culturally diverse ethnic groups in Tanzania: a biological and socioeconomic analysis

BACKGOUND

Improved antimicrobial stewardship, sanitation, and hygiene are WHO-inspired priorities for restriction of the spread of antimicrobial resistance. Prioritisation among these objectives is essential, particularly in low-income and middle-income countries, but the factors contributing most to antimicrobial resistance are typically unknown and could vary substantially between and within countries. We aimed to identify the biological and socioeconomic risk factors associated with carriage of resistant Escherichia coli in three culturally diverse ethnic groups in northern Tanzania.

METHODS

We developed a survey containing more than 200 items and administered it in randomly selected households in 13 Chagga, Arusha, or Maasai villages chosen on the basis of ethnic composition and distance to urban centres. Human stool samples were collected from a subset of households, as were liquid milk samples and swabs of milk containers. Samples were processed and plated onto MacConkey agar plates, then presumptive E coli isolates were identified on the basis of colony morphology. Susceptibility of isolates was then tested against a panel of nine antimicrobials (ampicillin, ceftazidime, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, kanamycin, streptomycin, sulfamethoxazole, tetracycline, and trimethoprim) via a breakpoint assay. Susceptibility findings were matched with data across a wide range of household characteristics, including education, hygiene practices, wealth, livestock husbandry, and antibiotic use.

FINDINGS

Between March 23, 2012, and July 30, 2015, we interviewed 391 households (118 Arusha, 100 Chagga, and 173 Maasai). Human stool samples were collected at 226 (58%) households across the 13 villages. 181 milk samples and 191 milk-container swabs were collected from 117 households across seven villages. 11 470 putative E coli samples were isolated from stool samples. Antimicrobial use in people and livestock was not associated with prevalence of resistance at the household level. Instead, the factors with the greatest predictive value involved exposure to bacteria, and were intimately connected with fundamental cultural differences across study groups. These factors included how different subsistence types (pastoralists vs farmers) access water sources and consumption of unboiled milk, reflecting increased exposure to resistant bacteria in milk.

INTERPRETATION

When cultural and ecological conditions favour bacterial transmission, there is a high likelihood that people will harbour antimicrobial-resistant bacteria irrespective of antimicrobial use practices. Public health interventions to limit antimicrobial resistance need to be tailored to local practices that affect bacterial transmission.

FUNDING

US National Science Foundation; Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council, UK Medical Research Council; and the Allen School.

Bacterial diarrhea in hospitalized children: Pathogen distribution and drug resistance

AIM

To study the pathogen distribution and drug resistance in hospitalized children with bacterial diarrhea to guide the selection of appropriate antimicrobial drug regimen for the clinical treatment of bacterial diarrhea in children.

METHODS

A total of 1107 children with bacterial diarrhea treated at our hospital from May 2012 to October 2017 were retrospectively analyzed. According to the clinical data of all children (including medical records, laboratory examination results, fecal pathogen detection results, and drug susceptibility test results), the distribution and composition of pathogenic bacteria, clinical symptoms, the drug resistance of main pathogenic bacteria, therapeutic effects, and prognosis were analyzed.

RESULTS

In feces from 1107 children with bacterial diarrhea, 206 strains of pathogenic bacteria were isolated, including 39 cases of Gram-positive bacteria (such as Staphylococcus aureus) and 167 cases of Gram-negative bacteria (such as shigella, pathogenic Escherichia coli, and salmonella). The detection rate of pathogenic bacteria in the feces was the highest in children aged < 1 year, and the detection rate decreased with the increase of age. Pathogenic bacteria were detected throughout the year, especially in summer. There was a statistically significant difference (P < 0.05) in clinical symptoms (such as fever, abdominal pain, defecation, and rehydration) between bacterial diarrhea caused by Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. The rate of resistance of main Gram-positive bacteria to antimicrobial drugs moxifloxacin, vancomycin, and linezolid was less than 30%, and the rate of resistance of Gram-negative bacteria to antibiotics ceftazidime, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, meropenem, and imipenem was less than 30%. The cure rate of bacterial diarrhea was 96.48% (1068/1107) after one week of treatment with antibiotics and selective antibacterial agents.

CONCLUSION

The pathogen distribution in children with bacterial diarrhea is complex, and clinicians should select antimicrobial drugs with a resistance rate less than 30% based on drug susceptibility test results.

A two-month follow-up evaluation testing interventions to limit the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistant bacteria among Maasai of northern Tanzania

BACKGROUND

In sub-Saharan Africa, efforts to control antimicrobial resistance (AMR) are aggravated by unregulated drug sales and use, and high connectivity between human, livestock, and wildlife populations. Our previous research indicates that Maasai agropastoralists-who have high exposure to livestock and livestock products and self-administer veterinary antibiotics-harbor antibiotic resistant Escherichia coli (E. coli). Here, we report the results of a public health intervention project among Maasai aimed at reducing selection and transmission of E. coli bacteria.

METHODS

Research was conducted in two Maasai communities in Northern Tanzania. Participants were provided with health knowledge and technological innovations to facilitate: 1) the prudent use of veterinary antibiotics (tape measures and dosage charts to calculate livestock weight for more accurate dosage), and, 2) the pasteurization of milk (thermometers), the latter of which was motivated by findings of high levels of resistant E. coli in Maasai milk. To determine knowledge retention and intervention adoption, we conducted a two-month follow-up evaluation in the largest of the two communities.

RESULTS

Retention of antimicrobial knowledge was positively associated with retention of bacterial knowledge and, among men, retention of bacterial knowledge was associated with greater wealth. Bacterial and AMR knowledge were not, however, associated with self-reported use of the innovations. Among women, self-reported use of the thermometers was associated with having more children and greater retention of knowledge about the health benefits of the innovations. Whereas 70% of women used their innovations correctly, men performed only 18% of the weight-estimation steps correctly. Men's correct use was associated with schooling, such that high illiteracy rates remain an important obstacle to the dissemination and diffusion of weight-estimation materials.

CONCLUSION

Our results indicate that dietary preferences for unboiled milk, concerns over child health, and a desire to improve the health of livestock are important cultural values that need to be incorporated in future AMR-prevention interventions that target Maasai populations. More generally, these findings inform future community-health interventions to limit AMR.