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Singh R, Sanscrainte ND, Estep AS, González K, Bernal XE. Rearing and Shipping of Uranotaenia lowii, a Frog-Biting Mosquito. Bio Protoc 2024; 14:e4996. [PMID: 38873019 PMCID: PMC11166534 DOI: 10.21769/bioprotoc.4996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2024] [Revised: 05/06/2024] [Accepted: 05/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Many studies on mosquito biology rely on laboratory-reared colonies, emphasizing the need for standardized protocols to investigate critical aspects such as disease biology, mosquito behavior, and vector control methods. While much knowledge is derived from anthropophilic species from genera like Anopheles, Aedes, and Culex, there is a growing interest in studying mosquitoes that feed on non-human hosts. This interest stems from the desire to gain a deeper understanding of the evolution of diverse host range use and host specificity. However, there is currently a limited number of comprehensive protocols for studying such species. Considering this gap, we present a protocol for rearing Uranotaenia lowii, a mosquito species specialized in feeding on anuran amphibians by eavesdropping on host-emitted sound cues. Additionally, we provide instructions for successfully shipping live specimens to promote research on this species and similar ones. This protocol helps fill the current gap in comprehensive guidelines for rearing and maintaining colonies of anuran host-biting mosquitoes. It serves as a valuable resource for researchers seeking to establish colonies of mosquito species from the Uranotaeniini tribe. Ultimately, this protocol may facilitate research on the evolutionary ecology of Culicidae, as this family has recently been proposed to have originated from a frog-feeding ancestor. Key features • Rearing and maintenance of colonies of non-human host-biting mosquitoes that feed on frogs using host-emitted acoustic cues. • Provides shipping guidelines aimed to enhance the establishment of colonies by new research groups and specimen exchanges between labs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richa Singh
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Neil D. Sanscrainte
- Fly and Mosquito Research Unit, Center for Medical, Agricultural & Veterinary Entomology, Agricultura Research Service, USDA, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Alden S. Estep
- Fly and Mosquito Research Unit, Center for Medical, Agricultural & Veterinary Entomology, Agricultura Research Service, USDA, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - K. González
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Ximena E. Bernal
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panamá, República de Panamá
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de Swart MM, Balvers C, Verhulst NO, Koenraadt CJM. Effects of host blood on mosquito reproduction. Trends Parasitol 2023; 39:575-587. [PMID: 37230833 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2023.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/23/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Female mosquitoes require blood from their host for egg development. However, the relationship between the composition of host blood and mosquito reproduction, and whether and how this is linked to host selection, remain unclear. A better understanding of these issues is beneficial for mass-rearing of mosquitoes for vector control. This review provides an overview of the currently known effects of blood constituents on mosquito reproduction. Furthermore, it highlights knowledge gaps and proposes new avenues for investigation. We recommend that research efforts be focused on physiological differences between generalist and specialist mosquito species as models to investigate if and how host preference correlates with reproductive output.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marieke M de Swart
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Carlijn Balvers
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Niels O Verhulst
- Institute of Parasitology, National Centre for Vector Entomology, Vetsuisse and Medical Faculty, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
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3
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Wohl MP, McMeniman CJ. Batch Rearing Aedes aegypti. Cold Spring Harb Protoc 2023; 2023:108017-pdb.prot. [PMID: 36223988 PMCID: PMC10097437 DOI: 10.1101/pdb.prot108017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Standardized rearing methods for the yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti are critical to facilitate controlled laboratory studies. This protocol describes a batch rearing protocol for Aedes aegypti stocks that yields healthy eggs, larvae, pupae, and adults in the laboratory for long-term colony maintenance and experimental manipulation. Foundational principles for the rearing and containment of these life cycle stages, as well as steps for mating and blood feeding Aedes aegypti to yield viable eggs for continuous culture or storage, are detailed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margot P Wohl
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA
| | - Conor J McMeniman
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA .,The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA
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Faber PA, Dorai AJ, Chown SL. A standardised low-cost membrane blood-feeder for Aedes aegypti made using common laboratory materials. PeerJ 2022; 10:e14247. [PMID: 36325181 PMCID: PMC9620972 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.14247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Blood feeding is a necessary part of laboratory studies involving mosquitoes and other hematophagous arthropods of interest in medical and ecological research. However, methods involving hosts may present serious risks, require ethics approvals and can be expensive. Here we describe an insect blood feeder made using common laboratory materials, which is low cost (<US$100) and can be constructed and operated with little technical expertise. We compared the blood feeder containing an artificial blood diet, Skitosnack, to direct human arm feeding for Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae), in terms of engorgement rate, fecundity and hatch rate. No significant difference in fecundity between the two approaches was found, (mean ± SD); direct human arm: 56 ± 26 eggs/female, artificial method: 47 ± 25 eggs/female, P = 0.569. Engorgement rates (direct human arm: 97.8 ± 4%, artificial: 64.1 ± 23%, P < 0.05) and hatch rates (direct human arm: 75 ± 12%, artificial: 59 ± 14%, P < 0.05) were lower in the artificially fed mosquitoes. Despite these differences, we maintained a healthy mosquito colony for 10 generations using the artificial feeding approach. Results from this comparison are within the range of other studies which compared direct host feeding with an artificial feeding method. We anticipate that the blood feeder presented here could substantially reduce costs usually required to establish a standardised and effective blood feeding method for maintaining mosquito colonies or conducting experiments, extending the capability of laboratories especially where research resources are limited, but vector-borne diseases common.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter A. Faber
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | | | - Steven L. Chown
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Harrison RE, Chen K, South L, Lorenzi A, Brown MR, Strand MR. Ad libitum consumption of protein- or peptide-sucrose solutions stimulates egg formation by prolonging the vitellogenic phase of oogenesis in anautogenous mosquitoes. Parasit Vectors 2022; 15:127. [PMID: 35413939 PMCID: PMC9004051 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-022-05252-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Anautogenous mosquitoes commonly consume nectars and other solutions containing sugar but are thought to only produce eggs in discrete gonadotrophic cycles after blood-feeding on a vertebrate host. However, some anautogenous species are known to produce eggs if amino acids in the form of protein are added to a sugar solution. Unclear is how different sources of amino acids in sugar solutions affect the processes that regulate egg formation and whether responses vary among species. In this study, we addressed these questions by focusing on Aedes aegypti and conducting some comparative assays with Aedes albopictus, Anopheles gambiae, Anopheles stephensi and Culex quinquefasciatus. Methods Adult female mosquitoes were fed sugar solutions containing amino acids, peptides or protein. Markers for activation of a gonadotrophic cycle including yolk deposition into oocytes, oviposition, ovary ecdysteroidogenesis, expression of juvenile hormone and 20-hydroxyecdysone-responsive genes, and adult blood-feeding behavior were then measured. Results The five anautogenous species we studied produced eggs when fed two proteins (bovine serum albumin, hemoglobin) or a mixture of peptides (tryptone) in 10% sucrose but deposited only small amounts of yolk into oocytes when fed amino acids in 10% sucrose. Focusing on Ae. aegypti, cultures were maintained for multiple generations by feeding adult females protein- or tryptone-sugar meals. Ad libitum access to protein- or tryptone-sugar solutions protracted production of ecdysteroids by the ovaries, vitellogenin by the fat body and protease activity by the midgut albeit at levels that were lower than in blood-fed females. Females also exhibited semi-continual oogenesis and repressed host-seeking behavior. Conclusions Several anautogenous mosquitoes produce eggs when provided ad libitum access to protein- or peptide-sugar meals, but several aspects of oogenesis also differ from females that blood-feed. Graphical Abstract ![]()
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13071-022-05252-4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruby E Harrison
- Department of Entomology, The University of Georgia, 120 Cedar Street, 420 Biological Sciences, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Kangkang Chen
- Department of Entomology, The University of Georgia, 120 Cedar Street, 420 Biological Sciences, Athens, GA, 30602, USA.,Department of Plant Protection, College of Horticulture and Plant Protection, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, China
| | - Lilith South
- Department of Entomology, The University of Georgia, 120 Cedar Street, 420 Biological Sciences, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Ange Lorenzi
- Department of Entomology, The University of Georgia, 120 Cedar Street, 420 Biological Sciences, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Mark R Brown
- Department of Entomology, The University of Georgia, 120 Cedar Street, 420 Biological Sciences, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Michael R Strand
- Department of Entomology, The University of Georgia, 120 Cedar Street, 420 Biological Sciences, Athens, GA, 30602, USA.
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A membrane and blood-free approach to rear adult Aedes albopictus. Acta Trop 2021; 218:105895. [PMID: 33753028 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2021.105895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Revised: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Most artificial dietary systems for feeding mosquitoes require a membrane feeder, host cues, phosphate saline buffers and a phagostimulant. These multicomponent feeders are complex, expansive and cumbersome that requires fully trained personnel. The objective of the present is to develop a simple sugar assisted protein (SAP) diet for the egg production of Aedes albopictus. The present study assessed the potential use of SAP dietary system on the engorgement, fecundity, preference of diet components and production of multiple generations of Ae. albopictus. Our data show that the female mosquitoes have strongly preferred a diet with: (i) a combination of sugar and protein over the individual component, and (ii) water over PBS (phosphate buffered saline) buffer as a carrier, whereas adenosine triphosphate (ATP) was not required as a phagostimulant. Based on our optimization data, the SAP diets (10-20% bovine serum albumin in 5% sucrose aqueous solution) do not require chemo-attractive lure, phagostimulant ATP, temperature and membrane feeding components. Female mosquitoes readily engorge on SAP diets and show similar rates of survival and fecundity compared to those when blood-fed on live animals. In addition, the number of eggs produced by female mosquitoes fed on SAP diets kept consistent for 10 consecutive generations. Our results indicate that SAP diet is a potential alternative against blood feeding that is simple and cost-effective diets for Ae. albopictus colony maintenance and to support large scale mass- production for experimental and other purposes.
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Kaczmarek A, Wrońska AK, Boguś MI, Kazek M, Gliniewicz A, Mikulak E, Matławska M. The type of blood used to feed Aedes aegypti females affects their cuticular and internal free fatty acid (FFA) profiles. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0251100. [PMID: 33930098 PMCID: PMC8087090 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0251100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Aedes aegypti, the primary vector of various arthropod-borne viral (arboviral) diseases such as dengue and Zika, is a popular laboratory model in vector biology. However, its maintenance in laboratory conditions is difficult, mostly because the females require blood meals to complete oogenesis, which is often provided as sheep blood. The outermost layer of the mosquito cuticle is consists of lipids which protects against numerous entomopathogens, prevents desiccation and plays an essential role in signalling processes. The aim of this work was to determine how the replacement of human blood with sheep blood affects the cuticular and internal FFA profiles of mosquitoes reared in laboratory culture. The individual FFAs present in cuticular and internal extracts from mosquito were identified and quantified by GC-MS method. The normality of their distribution was checked using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and the Student's t-test was used to compare them. GC-MS analysis revealed similar numbers of internal and cuticular FFAs in the female mosquitoes fed sheep blood by membrane (MFSB) and naturally fed human blood (NFHB), however MFSB group demonstrated 3.1 times greater FFA concentrations in the cuticular fraction and 1.4 times the internal fraction than the NFHB group. In the MFSB group, FFA concentration was 1.6 times higher in the cuticular than the internal fraction, while for NFHB, FFA concentration was 1.3 times lower in the cuticular than the internal fraction. The concentration of C18:3 acid was 223 times higher in the internal fraction than the cuticle in the MHSB group but was absent in the NFHB group. MFSB mosquito demonstrate different FFA profiles to wild mosquitoes, which might influence their fertility and the results of vital processes studied under laboratory conditions. The membrane method of feeding mosquitoes is popular, but our research indicates significant differences in the FFA profiles of MFSB and NFHB. Such changes in FFA profile might influence female fertility, as well as other vital processes studied in laboratory conditions, such as the response to pesticides. Our work indicates that sheep blood has potential shortcomings as a substitute feed for human blood, as its use in laboratory studies may yield different results to those demonstrated by free-living mosquitoes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agata Kaczmarek
- Witold Stefański Institute of Parasitology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
- * E-mail:
| | | | - Mieczysława Irena Boguś
- Witold Stefański Institute of Parasitology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
- BIOMIBO, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Michalina Kazek
- Witold Stefański Institute of Parasitology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | | | - Ewa Mikulak
- National Institute of Public Health—National Institute of Hygiene, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Marta Matławska
- National Institute of Public Health—National Institute of Hygiene, Warsaw, Poland
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Tur C, Almenar D, Benlloch-Navarro S, Argilés-Herrero R, Zacarés M, Dalmau V, Pla I. Sterile Insect Technique in an Integrated Vector Management Program against Tiger Mosquito Aedes albopictus in the Valencia Region (Spain): Operating Procedures and Quality Control Parameters. INSECTS 2021; 12:272. [PMID: 33807092 PMCID: PMC8004901 DOI: 10.3390/insects12030272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2020] [Revised: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti are the main vectors of arboviral diseases such as dengue, Zika and chikungunya viruses. About a third of the world population is currently at risk of contracting Aedes-borne epidemics. In recent years, A. albopictus has drastically increased its distribution in many countries. In the absence of efficient mosquito vector control methods, the sterile insect technique (SIT) is presented as a very promising and environment-friendly control tool. The Agriculture Department of the Valencian Region is promoting an ongoing pilot project to evaluate the efficacy of an integrated vector management program (IVM) based on the use of the SIT as the main method of control. The laboratory studies for evaluating the entomological efficacy of SIT through the phased conditional testing process recommended by World Health Organization and the International Atomic Energy Agency (WHO-IAEA) are addressed. This study describes the routine operating procedures and quality control parameters for the medium-scale rearing of sterile male A. albopictus. More than 15 million sterile males have been produced and released in an area of 80 ha between 2018 and 2020. Of the initial L1 larvae, we recovered 17.2% of male pupae after sex sorting to be sterilized and released on the field, while the rest of the pupae remained available to maintain the rearing colony. The residual percentage of females after sex sorting was on average 0.17%. The obtained values in terms of production and quality control as well as the proposed rearing methodology can be useful for designing a medium-scale mosquito-rearing pipeline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Tur
- Empresa de Transformación Agraria S.A., S.M.E, M.P. (TRAGSA), Avenida de la Industria 26, 46980 Paterna, Spain; (D.A.); (S.B.-N.); (I.P.)
- Escuela de Doctorado, Universidad Católica de Valencia San Vicente Mártir, 46001 Valencia, Spain
| | - David Almenar
- Empresa de Transformación Agraria S.A., S.M.E, M.P. (TRAGSA), Avenida de la Industria 26, 46980 Paterna, Spain; (D.A.); (S.B.-N.); (I.P.)
| | - Sandra Benlloch-Navarro
- Empresa de Transformación Agraria S.A., S.M.E, M.P. (TRAGSA), Avenida de la Industria 26, 46980 Paterna, Spain; (D.A.); (S.B.-N.); (I.P.)
| | - Rafael Argilés-Herrero
- Insect Pest Control Section, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, Wagramerstrasse 5, P.O. Box 100, A-1400 Vienna, Austria;
| | - Mario Zacarés
- Departamento de Ciencias Básicas y Transversales, Facultad de Veterinaria y Ciencias Experimentales, Universidad Católica de Valencia San Vicente Mártir, C/Guillem de Castro 94, 46001 Valencia, Spain;
| | - Vicente Dalmau
- Conselleria de Agricultura, Desarrollo Rural, Emergencia Climática y Transición Ecológica, Ctra Alicante-Valencia s/n Apdo correos 125, 46460 Silla, Spain;
| | - Ignacio Pla
- Empresa de Transformación Agraria S.A., S.M.E, M.P. (TRAGSA), Avenida de la Industria 26, 46980 Paterna, Spain; (D.A.); (S.B.-N.); (I.P.)
- Escuela de Doctorado, Universidad Católica de Valencia San Vicente Mártir, 46001 Valencia, Spain
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Harrison RE, Brown MR, Strand MR. Whole blood and blood components from vertebrates differentially affect egg formation in three species of anautogenous mosquitoes. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:119. [PMID: 33627180 PMCID: PMC7905675 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-04594-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Most female mosquitoes are anautogenous and must blood feed on a vertebrate host to produce eggs. Prior studies show that the number of eggs females lay per clutch correlates with the volume of blood ingested and that protein is the most important macronutrient for egg formation. In contrast, how whole blood, blood fractions and specific blood proteins from different vertebrates affect egg formation is less clear. Since egg formation is best understood in Aedes aegypti, we examined how blood and blood components from different vertebrates affect this species and two others: the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae and arbovirus vector Culex quinquefasciatus. Methods Adult female mosquitoes were fed blood, blood fractions and purified major blood proteins from different vertebrate hosts. Markers of reproductive response including ovary ecdysteroidogenesis, yolk deposition into oocytes and number of mature eggs produced were measured. Results Ae. aegypti, An. gambiae and C. quinquefasciatus responded differently to meals of whole blood, plasma or blood cells from human, rat, chicken and turkey hosts. We observed more similarities between the anthropophiles Ae. aegypti and An. gambiae than the ornithophile C. quinquefasciatus. Focusing on Ae. aegypti, the major plasma-derived proteins (serum albumin, fibrinogen and globulins) differentially stimulated egg formation as a function of vertebrate host source. The major blood cell protein, hemoglobin, stimulated yolk deposition when from pigs but not humans, cows or sheep. Serum albumins from different vertebrates also variably affected egg formation. Bovine serum albumin (BSA) stimulated ovary ecdysteroidogenesis, but more weakly induced digestive enzyme activities than whole blood. In contrast, BSA-derived peptides and free amino acids had no stimulatory effects on ecdysteroidogenesis or yolk deposition into oocytes. Conclusions Whole blood, blood fractions and specific blood proteins supported egg formation in three species of anautogenous mosquitoes but specific responses varied with the vertebrate source of the blood components tested.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruby E Harrison
- Department of Entomology, The University of Georgia, 120 Cedar Street, 420 Biological Sciences, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Mark R Brown
- Department of Entomology, The University of Georgia, 120 Cedar Street, 420 Biological Sciences, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Michael R Strand
- Department of Entomology, The University of Georgia, 120 Cedar Street, 420 Biological Sciences, Athens, GA, 30602, USA.
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Sakuma C, Kanuka H. A simple and affordable method for estimating the fluid volume a mosquito sucks using food dyes. Trop Med Health 2021; 49:13. [PMID: 33536084 PMCID: PMC7856782 DOI: 10.1186/s41182-021-00302-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Blood-sucking by mosquitoes is an inevitable behavior when pathogens are transmitted among humans. Adenine nucleotides such as ATP are known as phagostimulants for mosquitoes and are widely used to induce and enhance the blood-sucking activity in an artificial manner. Although using ATP solution is convenient to introduce a variety of substances (for example chemicals and pathogens) into the mosquito body via sucking, establishing an easy and cost-effective method to quantify the amount of solution ingested has yet to be reported. RESULTS A set of commercial food dyes (green, blue, yellow, and red) was employed in this study. Each dye was added to ATP solution used to colorize the abdomen of Ae. aegypti female mosquitoes after ingestion. The intake of food dyes did not show any toxicity to the mosquitoes, affecting neither ATP-sucking behavior nor survival of the mosquitoes. We observed that quantifying the color intensity of green dye in the mosquito abdomen by spectral analysis, as well as distinguishing the size of the colored abdomen using the naked eye, allowed the estimation of the amount of ingested solution. Using this method, capsaicin, a pungent component of chili peppers, was identified as an aversive tastant that can discourage mosquitoes from sucking the ATP solution. CONCLUSIONS Employing commercially available, non-toxic food dyes converted ATP-driven membrane feeding into an easy-to-use method to estimate the amount of solution ingested by mosquitoes. This method can be further applied for a variety of experiments such as introducing a certain quantity of chemical compounds or microbes into the mosquito body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chisako Sakuma
- Department of Tropical Medicine, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan.
- Center for Medical Entomology, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Hirotaka Kanuka
- Department of Tropical Medicine, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan.
- Center for Medical Entomology, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan.
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Jové V, Venkataraman K, Gabel TM, Duvall LB. Feeding and Quantifying Animal-Derived Blood and Artificial Meals in Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes. J Vis Exp 2020:10.3791/61835. [PMID: 33165316 PMCID: PMC8060843 DOI: 10.3791/61835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Females of certain mosquito species can spread diseases while biting vertebrate hosts to obtain protein-rich blood meals required for egg development. In the laboratory, researchers can deliver animal-derived and artificial blood meals to mosquitoes via membrane feeders, which allow for manipulation of meal composition. Here, we present methods for feeding blood and artificial blood meals to Aedes aegypti mosquitoes and quantifying the volume consumed by individual females. Targeted feeding and quantification of artificial/blood meals have broad uses, including testing the effects of meal components on mosquito behavior and physiology, delivering pharmacological compounds without injection, and infecting mosquitoes with specific pathogens. Adding fluorescein dye to the meal prior to feeding allows for subsequent meal size quantification. The meal volume consumed by mosquitoes can be measured either by weight, if the females are to be used later for behavioral experiments, or by homogenizing individual females in 96-well plates and measuring fluorescence levels using a plate reader as an endpoint assay. Meal size quantification can be used to determine whether changing the meal components alters the meal volume ingested or if meal consumption differs between mosquito strains. Precise meal size quantification is also critical for downstream assays, such as those measuring effects on host attraction or fecundity. The methods presented here can be further adapted to track meal digestion over the course of days or to include multiple distinguishable markers added to different meals (like nectar and blood) to quantify the consumption of each meal by a single mosquito. These methods allow researchers to singlehandedly perform high-throughput measurements to compare the meal volume consumed by hundreds of individual mosquitoes. These tools will therefore be broadly useful to the community of mosquito researchers for answering diverse biological questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Jové
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics and Behavior, The Rockefeller University
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12
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Long-Term Mosquito culture with SkitoSnack, an artificial blood meal replacement. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0008591. [PMID: 32941432 PMCID: PMC7523998 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2020] [Revised: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The reliance on blood is a limiting factor for mass rearing of mosquitoes for Sterile-Insect-Technique (SIT) and other mosquito-based control strategies. To solve this problem, we have developed SkitoSnack, a formulated diet for Aedes aegypti (L) mosquitoes, as an alternative for vertebrate blood. Here we addressed the question if long-term yellow fever mosquito culture with SkitoSnack resulted in changed life history traits and fitness of the offspring compared to blood-raised mosquitoes. We also explored if SkitoSnack is suitable to raise Asian tiger mosquitos, Aedes albopictus (L.), and the human bed bug, Cimex lectularius (L). We measured life history traits for 30th generation SkitoSnack-raised Ae. aegypti and 11th generation SkitoSnack-raised Ae. albopictus, and compared them with control mosquitoes raised on blood only. We compared meal preference, flight performance, and reproductive fitness in Ae. aegypti raised on SkitoSnack or blood. We also offered SkitoSnack to bed bug nymphs. We found that long-term culture with SkitoSnack resulted in mosquitoes with similar life history traits compared to bovine blood-raised mosquitoes in both species we studied. Also, Ae. aegypti mosquitoes raised on SkitoSnack had similar flight performance compared to blood raised mosquitoes, were still strongly attracted by human smell and had equal mating success. Minimal feeding occurred in bed bugs. Our results suggest that long-term culture with the blood-meal replacement SkitoSnack results in healthy, fit mosquitoes. Therefore, artificial diets like SkitoSnack can be considered as a viable alternative for vertebrate blood in laboratory mosquito culture as well as for mosquito mass production for Sterile-Insect-Technique mosquito control interventions. SkitoSnack was not suitable to induce engorgement of bed bugs.
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Ross PA, Lau MJ, Hoffmann AA. Does membrane feeding compromise the quality of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes? PLoS One 2019; 14:e0224268. [PMID: 31693672 PMCID: PMC6834243 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0224268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2019] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Modified Aedes aegypti mosquitoes are being mass-reared for release in disease control programs around the world. Releases involving female mosquitoes rely on them being able to seek and feed on human hosts. To facilitate the mass-production of mosquitoes for releases, females are often provided blood through artificial membrane feeders. When reared across generations there is a risk that mosquitoes will adapt to feeding on membranes and lose their ability to feed on human hosts. To test adaptation to membrane feeding, we selected replicate populations of Ae. aegypti for feeding on either human arms or membrane feeders for at least 8 generations. Membrane-selected populations suffered fitness costs, likely due to inbreeding depression arising from bottlenecks. Membrane-selected females had higher feeding rates on membranes than human-selected ones, suggesting adaptation to membrane feeding, but they maintained their attraction to host cues and feeding ability on humans despite a lack of selection for these traits. Host-seeking ability in small laboratory cages did not differ between populations selected on the two blood sources, but membrane-selected females were compromised in a semi-field enclosure where host-seeking was tested over a longer distance. Our findings suggest that Ae. aegypti may adapt to feeding on blood provided artificially, but this will not substantially compromise field performance or affect experimental assessments of mosquito fitness. However, large population sizes (thousands of individuals) during mass rearing with membrane feeders should be maintained to avoid bottlenecks which lead to inbreeding depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Perran A. Ross
- Pest and Environmental Adaptation Research Group, Bio21 Institute and the School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Meng-Jia Lau
- Pest and Environmental Adaptation Research Group, Bio21 Institute and the School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ary A. Hoffmann
- Pest and Environmental Adaptation Research Group, Bio21 Institute and the School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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Abstract
Mosquito breeding depends on the supply of fresh vertebrate blood, a major bottleneck for large-scale production of Anopheles spp. Feeding alternatives to fresh blood are thus a priority for research, outdoor large-cage trials and control interventions. Several artificial meal compositions were tested and Anopheles oogenesis, egg laying and development into the next generation of adult mosquitoes were followed. We identified blood-substitute-diets that supported ovarian development, egg maturation and fertility as well as, low progeny larval mortality, and normal development of offspring into adult mosquitoes. The formulated diet is an effective artificial meal, free of fresh blood that mimics a vertebrate blood meal and represents an important advance for the sustainability of Anopheles mosquito rearing in captivity.
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Paris V, Cottingham E, Ross PA, Axford JK, Hoffmann AA. Effects of Alternative Blood Sources on Wolbachia Infected Aedes aegypti Females within and across Generations. INSECTS 2018; 9:E140. [PMID: 30314399 PMCID: PMC6315918 DOI: 10.3390/insects9040140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2018] [Revised: 10/06/2018] [Accepted: 10/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Wolbachia bacteria have been identified as a tool for reducing the transmission of arboviruses transmitted by Aedes aegypti. Research groups around the world are now mass rearing Wolbachia-infected Ae. aegypti for deliberate release. We investigated the fitness impact of a crucial element of mass rearing: the blood meal required by female Ae. aegypti to lay eggs. Although Ae. aegypti almost exclusively feed on human blood, it is often difficult to use human blood in disease-endemic settings. When females were fed on sheep or pig blood rather than human blood, egg hatch rates decreased in all three lines tested (uninfected, or infected by wMel, or wAlbB Wolbachia). This finding was particularly pronounced when fed on sheep blood, although fecundity was not affected. Some of these effects persisted after an additional generation on human blood. Attempts to keep populations on sheep and pig blood sources only partly succeeded, suggesting that strong adaptation is required to develop a stably infected line on an alternative blood source. There was a decrease in Wolbachia density when Ae. aegypti were fed on non-human blood sources. Density increased in lines kept for multiple generations on the alternate sources but was still reduced relative to lines kept on human blood. These findings suggest that sheep and pig blood will entail a cost when used for maintaining Wolbachia-infected Ae. aegypti. These costs should be taken into account when planning mass release programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Véronique Paris
- Pest and Environmental Adaptation Research Group, School of BioSciences, Bio21 Institute, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia.
| | - Ellen Cottingham
- Pest and Environmental Adaptation Research Group, School of BioSciences, Bio21 Institute, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia.
| | - Perran A Ross
- Pest and Environmental Adaptation Research Group, School of BioSciences, Bio21 Institute, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia.
| | - Jason K Axford
- Pest and Environmental Adaptation Research Group, School of BioSciences, Bio21 Institute, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia.
| | - Ary A Hoffmann
- Pest and Environmental Adaptation Research Group, School of BioSciences, Bio21 Institute, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia.
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