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Kristan M, Hazelgrove C, Kumar K, Kumar A, Kumar V, Das P, Collins E, Mark-Carew M, Campino S, Cameron M. Knockdown resistance mutations in Phlebotomus argentipes sand flies in Bihar, India. Parasit Vectors 2024; 17:334. [PMID: 39123254 PMCID: PMC11311910 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-024-06424-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2024] [Accepted: 07/25/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Vector control based on indoor residual spraying (IRS) is one of the main components of the visceral leishmaniasis (VL) elimination programme in India. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) was used for IRS until 2015 and was later replaced by the synthetic pyrethroid alpha-cypermethrin. Both classes of insecticides share the same target site, the voltage-gated sodium channel (Vgsc). As high levels of resistance to DDT have been documented in the local sand fly vector, Phlebotomus argentipes, it is possible that mutations in the Vgsc gene could provide resistance to alpha-cypermethrin, affecting current IRS pyrethroid-based vector control. METHODS This study aimed to compare frequencies of knockdown resistance (kdr) mutations in Vgsc between two sprayed and two unsprayed villages in Bihar state, India, which had the highest VL burden of the four endemic states. Across four villages, 350 female P. argentipes were collected as part of a 2019 molecular xenomonitoring study. DNA was extracted and used for sequence analysis of the IIS6 fragment of the Vgsc gene to assess the presence of kdr mutations. RESULTS Mutations were identified at various positions, most frequently at codon 1014, a common site known to be associated with insecticide resistance in mosquitoes and sand flies. Significant inter-village variation was observed, with sand flies from Dharampur, an unsprayed village, showing a significantly higher proportion of wild-type alleles (55.8%) compared with the three other villages (8.5-14.3%). The allele differences observed across the four villages may result from selection pressure caused by previous exposure to DDT. CONCLUSIONS While DDT resistance has been reported in Bihar, P. argentipes is still susceptible to pyrethroids. However, the presence of kdr mutations in sand flies could present a threat to IRS used for VL control in endemic villages in India. Continuous surveillance of vector bionomics and insecticide resistance, using bioassays and target genotyping, is required to inform India's vector control strategies and to ensure the VL elimination target is reached and sustained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mojca Kristan
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK.
| | | | - Kundan Kumar
- Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences, Patna, India
| | - Ashish Kumar
- Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences, Patna, India
| | - Vijay Kumar
- Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences, Patna, India
| | - Pradeep Das
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, India
| | - Emma Collins
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Miguella Mark-Carew
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Susana Campino
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Mary Cameron
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
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Uranw S, Bhattarai NR, Cloots K, Roy L, Rai K, Kiran U, Pyakurel UR, Lal BK, Burza S, Rijal S, Karki P, Khanal B, Hasker E. Visceral leishmaniasis in the hills of western Nepal: A transmission assessment. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0289578. [PMID: 38630746 PMCID: PMC11023194 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0289578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024] Open
Abstract
In Nepal, visceral leishmaniasis (VL) has been targeted for elimination as a public health problem by 2026. Recently, increasing numbers of VL cases have been reported from districts of doubtful endemicity including hills and mountains, threatening the ongoing VL elimination program in Nepal. We conducted a multi-disciplinary, descriptive cross-sectional survey to assess the local transmission of Leishmania donovani in seven such districts situated at altitudes of up to 1,764 meters in western Nepal from March to December 2019. House-to-house surveys were performed for socio-demographic data and data on past and current VL cases. Venous blood was collected from all consenting individuals aged ≥2 years and tested with the rK39 RDT. Blood samples were also tested with direct agglutination test, and a titer of ≥1:1600 was taken as a marker of infection. A Leishmania donovani species-specific PCR (SSU-rDNA) was performed for parasite species confirmation. We also captured sand flies using CDC light traps and mouth aspirators. The house-to-house surveys documented 28 past and six new VL cases of which 82% (28/34) were without travel exposure. Overall, 4.1% (54/1320) of healthy participants tested positive for L. donovani on at least one serological or molecular test. Among asymptomatic individuals, 17% (9/54) were household contacts of past VL cases, compared to 0.5% (6/1266) among non-infected individuals. Phlebotomus argentipes, the vector of L. donovani, was found in all districts except in Bajura. L. donovani was confirmed in two asymptomatic individuals and one pool of sand flies of Phlebotomus (Adlerius) sp. We found epidemiological and entomological evidence for local transmission of L. donovani in areas previously considered as non-endemic for VL. The national VL elimination program should revise the endemicity status of these districts and extend surveillance and control activities to curb further transmission of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Surendra Uranw
- Department of Internal Medicine, B.P. Koirala Institute of Health Sciences, Dharan, Nepal
| | - Narayan Raj Bhattarai
- Department of Microbiology, B.P. Koirala Institute of Health Sciences, Dharan, Nepal
| | - Kristien Cloots
- Department of Public Health, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Lalita Roy
- Department of Public Health, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
- Tropical & Infectious Diseases Center, B.P. Koirala Institute of Health Sciences, Dharan, Nepal
| | - Keshav Rai
- Department of Microbiology, B.P. Koirala Institute of Health Sciences, Dharan, Nepal
| | - Usha Kiran
- World Health Organization, Country Office for Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal
| | - Uttam Raj Pyakurel
- Epidemiology and Disease Control Division, Department of Health Services, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal
| | - Bibek Kumar Lal
- Epidemiology and Disease Control Division, Department of Health Services, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal
| | - Sakib Burza
- Faculty of Infectious Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Suman Rijal
- Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative, India Office, New Delhi, India
| | - Prahlad Karki
- Department of Internal Medicine, B.P. Koirala Institute of Health Sciences, Dharan, Nepal
| | - Basudha Khanal
- Department of Microbiology, B.P. Koirala Institute of Health Sciences, Dharan, Nepal
| | - Epco Hasker
- Department of Public Health, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
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3
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Reid E, Deb RM, Ali A, Singh RP, Mishra PK, Shepherd J, Singh AM, Bharti A, Singh C, Sharma S, Coleman M, Weetman D. Molecular surveillance of insecticide resistance in Phlebotomus argentipes targeted by indoor residual spraying for visceral leishmaniasis elimination in India. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2023; 17:e0011734. [PMID: 37939123 PMCID: PMC10659200 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0011734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Revised: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 11/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Molecular surveillance of resistance is an increasingly important part of vector borne disease control programmes that utilise insecticides. The visceral leishmaniasis (VL) elimination programme in India uses indoor residual spraying (IRS) with the pyrethroid, alpha-cypermethrin to control Phlebotomus argentipes the vector of Leishmania donovani, the causative agent of VL. Prior long-term use of DDT may have selected for knockdown resistance (kdr) mutants (1014F and S) at the shared DDT and pyrethroid target site, which are common in India and can also cause pyrethroid cross-resistance. We monitored the frequency of these marker mutations over five years from 2017-2021 in sentinel sites in eight districts of north-eastern India covered by IRS. Frequencies varied markedly among the districts, though finer scale variation, among villages within districts, was limited. A pronounced and highly significant increase in resistance-associated genotypes occurred between 2017 and 2018, but with relative stability thereafter, and some reversion toward more susceptible genotypes in 2021. Analyses linked IRS with mutant frequencies suggesting an advantage to more resistant genotypes, especially when pyrethroid was under-sprayed in IRS. However, this advantage did not translate into sustained allele frequency changes over the study period, potentially because of a relatively greater net advantage under field conditions for a wild-type/mutant genotype than projected from laboratory studies and/or high costs of the most resistant genotype. Further work is required to improve calibration of each 1014 genotype with resistance, preferably using operationally relevant measures. The lack of change in resistance mechanism over the span of the study period, coupled with available bioassay data suggesting susceptibility, suggests that resistance has yet to emerge despite intensive IRS. Nevertheless, the advantage of resistance-associated genotypes with IRS and under spraying, suggest that measures to continue monitoring and improvement of spray quality are vital, and consideration of future alternatives to pyrethroids for IRS would be advisable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Reid
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Michael Coleman
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - David Weetman
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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Manteca-Acosta M, Cueto GR, Poullain M, Santini MS, Salomón OD. Population dynamics of Nyssomyia whitmani (Diptera: Psychodidae) in domestic and peridomestic environments in Northeast Argentina, a tegumentary leishmaniasis outbreak area. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2023; 60:1088-1098. [PMID: 37313956 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjad061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Revised: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
In the present study, the temporal dynamics of the main vector of Leishmania braziliensis, Nyssomyia whitmani, was measured by monthly captures of phlebotominae sandflies during 5 consecutive years (from 2011 to 2016) in the Paranaense region of South America. The captures were performed in environments where the human-vector contact risk is high: domiciliary and peridomiciliary environments in a rural area endemic of tegumentary leishmaniasis. Nyssomyia whitmani was recorded as the dominant species of the phlebotominae ensemble in all domiciliary and peridomiciliary environments (House, Chicken Shed, Pigsty, and Forest Edge). Using generalized additive models, intra- and interannual fluctuations were observed, modulated by meteorological variables such as the minimum temperature and the accumulated precipitation 1 wk prior to capture. The installation of a pigsty by the farmer during the study period allowed us to observe and describe the so-called "pigsty effect" where the Ny. whitmani population was spatially redistributed, turning the pigsty as the environment that obtained the highest phlebotominae record counts, thus maintaining the farm overall abundance, supporting the idea that the environmental management of the peridomicile could have an impact on the reduction of epidemiological risk by altering the spatial distribution of the phlebotominae ensemble in the environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Manteca-Acosta
- Centro Nacional de Diagnóstico e Investigación en Endemo-epidemias (CeNDIE), Administración Nacional de Laboratorios de Salud (ANLIS), Ministerio de Salud de la Nación, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Gerardo Rubén Cueto
- Departamento de Ecología, Genética y Evolución, Instituto IEGEBA (CONICET-UBA), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Matias Poullain
- Centro Nacional de Diagnóstico e Investigación en Endemo-epidemias (CeNDIE), Administración Nacional de Laboratorios de Salud (ANLIS), Ministerio de Salud de la Nación, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María Soledad Santini
- Instituto Nacional de Parasitología (INP-Fatala Chaben), Administración Nacional de Laboratorios de Salud (ANLIS), Ministerio de Salud de la Nación, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Oscar Daniel Salomón
- Instituto Nacional de Medicina Tropical, Administración Nacional de Laboratorios de Salud (ANLIS), Ministerio de Salud de la Nación, Puerto Iguazú, Misiones, Argentina
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McIntyre-Nolan S, Kumar V, Mark-Carew M, Kumar K, Nightingale ES, Dalla Libera Marchiori G, Rogers ME, Kristan M, Campino S, Medley GF, Das P, Cameron MM. Comparison of collection methods for Phlebotomus argentipes sand flies to use in a molecular xenomonitoring system for the surveillance of visceral leishmaniasis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2023; 17:e0011200. [PMID: 37656745 PMCID: PMC10501600 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0011200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The kala-azar elimination programme has resulted in a significant reduction in visceral leishmaniasis (VL) cases across the Indian Subcontinent. To detect any resurgence of transmission, a sensitive cost-effective surveillance system is required. Molecular xenomonitoring (MX), detection of pathogen DNA/RNA in vectors, provides a proxy of human infection in the lymphatic filariasis elimination programme. To determine whether MX can be used for VL surveillance in a low transmission setting, large numbers of the sand fly vector Phlebotomus argentipes are required. This study will determine the best method for capturing P. argentipes females for MX. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS The field study was performed in two programmatic and two non-programmatic villages in Bihar, India. A total of 48 households (12/village) were recruited. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention light traps (CDC-LTs) were compared with Improved Prokopack (PKP) and mechanical vacuum aspirators (MVA) using standardised methods. Four 12x12 Latin squares, 576 collections, were attempted (12/house, 144/village,192/method). Molecular analyses of collections were conducted to confirm identification of P. argentipes and to detect human and Leishmania DNA. Operational factors, such as time burden, acceptance to householders and RNA preservation, were also considered. A total of 562 collections (97.7%) were completed with 6,809 sand flies captured. Females comprised 49.0% of captures, of which 1,934 (57.9%) were identified as P. argentipes. CDC-LTs collected 4.04 times more P. argentipes females than MVA and 3.62 times more than PKP (p<0.0001 for each). Of 21,735 mosquitoes in the same collections, no significant differences between collection methods were observed. CDC-LTs took less time to install and collect than to perform aspirations and their greater yield compensated for increased sorting time. No significant differences in Leishmania RNA detection and quantitation between methods were observed in experimentally infected sand flies maintained in conditions simulating field conditions. CDC-LTs were favoured by householders. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE CDC-LTs are the most useful collection tool of those tested for MX surveillance since they collected higher numbers of P. argentipes females without compromising mosquito captures or the preservation of RNA. However, capture rates are still low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon McIntyre-Nolan
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Vijay Kumar
- Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences, Patna, India
| | - Miguella Mark-Carew
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Kundan Kumar
- Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences, Patna, India
| | - Emily S. Nightingale
- Department of Global Health and Development, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Matthew E. Rogers
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Mojca Kristan
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Susana Campino
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Graham F. Medley
- Department of Global Health and Development, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Pradeep Das
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, India
| | - Mary M. Cameron
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
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Chaubey R, Shukla A, Kushwaha AK, Tiwary P, Kumar Singh S, Hennings S, Singh OP, Lawyer P, Rowton E, Petersen CA, Bernhardt SA, Sundar S. Assessing insecticide susceptibility, diagnostic dose and time for the sand fly Phlebotomus argentipes, the vector of visceral leishmaniasis in India, using the CDC bottle bioassay. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2023; 17:e0011276. [PMID: 37163529 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0011276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Revised: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 05/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is a vector-borne protozoan disease, which can be fatal if left untreated. Synthetic chemical insecticides are very effective tools for controlling of insect vectors, including the sand fly Phlebotomus argentipes, the vector of VL in the Indian subcontinent. However, repeated use of the same insecticide with increasing doses potentially can create high selection pressure and lead to tolerance and resistance development. The objective of this study was to determine the lethal concentrations and assess levels of susceptibility, diagnostic doses and times to death of laboratory-reared P. argentipes to five insecticides that are used worldwide to control vectors. Using the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) bottle bioassay, 20-30 sand flies were exposed in insecticide- coated 500-ml glass bottles. Flies were then observed for 24 hours and mortality was recorded. Dose-response survival curves were generated for each insecticide using QCal software and lethal concentrations causing 50%, 90% and 95% mortality were determined. A bioassay was also conducted to determine diagnostic doses and diagnostic times by exposing 20-30 flies in each bottle containing set concentrations of insecticide. Mortality was recorded at 10-minute intervals for 120 minutes to generate the survival curve. Phlebotomus argentipes are highly susceptible to alpha-cypermethrin, followed by deltamethrin, malathion, chlorpyrifos, and least susceptible to DDT. Also, the lowest diagnostic doses and diagnostic times were established for alpha-cypermethrin (3μg/ml for 40 minutes) to kill 100% of the flies. The susceptibility data, diagnostic doses and diagnostic times presented here will be useful as baseline reference points for future studies to assess insecticide susceptibility and resistance monitoring of field caught sand flies and to assist in surveillance as VL elimination is achieved in the region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahul Chaubey
- Kala-Azar Medical Research Center, Muzaffarpur, Bihar, India
- Department of Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Ashish Shukla
- Department of Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Anurag Kumar Kushwaha
- Department of Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Puja Tiwary
- Department of Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | | | - Shawna Hennings
- Department of Biology, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
| | - Om Praksh Singh
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Phillip Lawyer
- Arthropod Collections, Monte L. Bean Life Science Museum, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, United States of America
| | - Edgar Rowton
- Division of Entomology, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Christine A Petersen
- Department of Epidemiology, College of Public Health, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States of America
- Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Iowa, Coralville, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Scott A Bernhardt
- Department of Biology, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
| | - Shyam Sundar
- Department of Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
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Iniguez E, Saha S, Petrellis G, Menenses C, Herbert S, Gonzalez-Rangel Y, Rowland T, Aronson NE, Rose C, Rafuse Haines L, Acosta-Serrano A, Serafim TD, Oliveira F, Srikantiah S, Bern C, Valenzuela JG, Kamhawi S. A Composite Recombinant Salivary Proteins Biomarker for Phlebotomus argentipes Provides a Surveillance Tool Postelimination of Visceral Leishmaniasis in India. J Infect Dis 2022; 226:1842-1851. [PMID: 36052609 PMCID: PMC10205619 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiac354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Incidence of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) in the Indian subcontinent (ISC) has declined by more than 95% since initiation of the elimination program in 2005. As the ISC transitions to the postelimination surveillance phase, an accurate measurement of human-vector contact is needed to assure long-term success. To develop this tool, we identified PagSP02 and PagSP06 from saliva of Phlebotomus argentipes, the vector of Leishmania donovani in the ISC, as immunodominant proteins in humans. We also established the absence of cross-reactivity with Phlebotomus papatasi saliva, the only other human-biting sand fly in the ISC. Importantly, by combining recombinant rPagSP02 and rPagSP06 we achieved greater antibody recognition and specificity than single salivary proteins. The receiver operating characteristics curve for rPagSP02 + rPagSP06 predicts exposure to Ph. argentipes bites with 90% specificity and 87% sensitivity compared to negative control sera (P >.0001). Overall, rPagSP02 + rPagSP06 provides an effective surveillance tool for monitoring vector control efforts after VL elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Iniguez
- Vector Molecular Biology Section, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Samiran Saha
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Science, Visva Bharati University, Bolpur, West Bengal, India
| | - Georgios Petrellis
- Vector Molecular Biology Section, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, USA
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology, and Hygiene, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Claudio Menenses
- Vector Molecular Biology Section, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Samantha Herbert
- Vector Molecular Biology Section, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Yvonne Gonzalez-Rangel
- Vector Molecular Biology Section, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Tobin Rowland
- Entomology Branch, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Naomi E Aronson
- Infectious Diseases Division, Department of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Clair Rose
- Department of Parasitology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Lee Rafuse Haines
- Department of Parasitology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Alvaro Acosta-Serrano
- Department of Parasitology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Tiago D Serafim
- Vector Molecular Biology Section, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Fabiano Oliveira
- Vector Molecular Biology Section, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Sridhar Srikantiah
- Bihar Technical Support Program, CARE India Solutions for Sustainable Development, Patna, India
| | - Caryn Bern
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Jesus G Valenzuela
- Vector Molecular Biology Section, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Shaden Kamhawi
- Vector Molecular Biology Section, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, USA
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