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Chea S, Willen L, Nhek S, Ly P, Tang K, Oristian J, Salas-Carrillo R, Ponce A, Leon PCV, Kong D, Ly S, Sath R, Lon C, Leang R, Huy R, Yek C, Valenzuela JG, Calvo E, Manning JE, Oliveira F. Antibodies to Aedes aegypti D7L salivary proteins as a new serological tool to estimate human exposure to Aedes mosquitoes. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1368066. [PMID: 38751433 PMCID: PMC11094246 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1368066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Aedes spp. are the most prolific mosquito vectors in the world. Found on every continent, they can effectively transmit various arboviruses, including the dengue virus which continues to cause outbreaks worldwide and is spreading into previously non-endemic areas. The lack of widely available dengue vaccines accentuates the importance of targeted vector control strategies to reduce the dengue burden. High-throughput tools to estimate human-mosquito contact and evaluate vector control interventions are lacking. We propose a novel serological tool that allows rapid screening of human cohorts for exposure to potentially infectious mosquitoes. Methods We tested 563 serum samples from a longitudinal pediatric cohort study previously conducted in Cambodia. Children enrolled in the study were dengue-naive at baseline and were followed biannually for dengue incidence for two years. We used Western blotting and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays to identify immunogenic Aedes aegypti salivary proteins and measure total anti-Ae. aegypti IgG. Results We found a correlation (rs=0.86) between IgG responses against AeD7L1 and AeD7L2 recombinant proteins and those to whole salivary gland homogenate. We observed seasonal fluctuations of AeD7L1+2 IgG responses and no cross-reactivity with Culex quinquefasciatus and Anopheles dirus mosquitoes. The baseline median AeD7L1+2 IgG responses for young children were higher in those who developed asymptomatic versus symptomatic dengue. Discussion The IgG response against AeD7L1+2 recombinant proteins is a highly sensitive and Aedes specific marker of human exposure to Aedes bites that can facilitate standardization of future serosurveys and epidemiological studies by its ability to provide a robust estimation of human-mosquito contact in a high-throughput fashion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophana Chea
- International Center of Excellence in Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Laura Willen
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Sreynik Nhek
- International Center of Excellence in Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Piseth Ly
- International Center of Excellence in Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Kristina Tang
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - James Oristian
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Roberto Salas-Carrillo
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Aiyana Ponce
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Paola Carolina Valenzuela Leon
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Dara Kong
- International Center of Excellence in Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Sokna Ly
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Ratanak Sath
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Chanthap Lon
- International Center of Excellence in Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Rithea Leang
- National Center for Parasitology, Entomology, and Malaria Control, Ministry of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
- National Dengue Control Program, Ministry of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Rekol Huy
- National Center for Parasitology, Entomology, and Malaria Control, Ministry of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Christina Yek
- International Center of Excellence in Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Jesus G. Valenzuela
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Eric Calvo
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Jessica E. Manning
- International Center of Excellence in Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Fabiano Oliveira
- International Center of Excellence in Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
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Chea S, Willen L, Nhek S, Ly P, Tang K, Oristian J, Salas-Carrillo R, Ponce A, Leon PCV, Kong D, Ly S, Sath R, Lon C, Leang R, Huy R, Yek C, Valenzuela JG, Calvo E, Manning JE, Oliveira F. Antibodies to Aedes aegypti D7L salivary proteins as a new serological tool to estimate human exposure to Aedes mosquitoes. MEDRXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR HEALTH SCIENCES 2023:2023.12.22.23300438. [PMID: 38318204 PMCID: PMC10843157 DOI: 10.1101/2023.12.22.23300438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2024]
Abstract
Introduction Aedes spp. are the most prolific mosquito vectors in the world. Found on every continent, they can effectively transmit various arboviruses, including the dengue virus which continues to cause outbreaks worldwide and is spreading into previously non-endemic areas. The lack of widely available dengue vaccines accentuates the importance of targeted vector control strategies to reduce the dengue burden. High-throughput sensitive tools to estimate human-mosquito contact and evaluate vector control interventions are lacking. We propose a novel serological tool that allows rapid screening of large human cohorts for exposure to potentially infectious mosquitoes and effective targeting of vector control. Methods We tested 563 serum samples from a longitudinal pediatric cohort study previously conducted in Cambodia. Children enrolled in the study were dengue-naïve at baseline and were followed biannually for dengue incidence for two years. We used Western blotting and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays to identify the most immunogenic Aedes aegypti salivary proteins and measure total anti- Ae. Aegypti IgG. Results We found a strong correlation (r s =0.86) between the combined IgG responses against AeD7L1 and AeD7L2 recombinant proteins and those to whole salivary gland homogenate. We observed seasonal fluctuations of AeD7L1+2 IgG responses, corresponding to Aedes spp. abundance in the region, and no cross-reactivity with Culex quinquefasciatus and Anopheles dirus mosquitoes. The baseline median AeD7L1+2 IgG responses for young children were higher in those who developed asymptomatic dengue versus those who developed symptomatic dengue. Conclusion The IgG response against AeD7L1+2 recombinant proteins is a highly sensitive and Aedes specific marker of human exposure to Aedes bites that can facilitate standardization of future serosurveys and epidemiological studies by its ability to provide a robust estimation of human-mosquito contact in a high-throughput fashion.
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Parker DM, Medina C, Bohl J, Lon C, Chea S, Lay S, Kong D, Nhek S, Man S, Doehl JSP, Leang R, Kry H, Rekol H, Oliveira F, Minin VM, Manning JE. Determinants of exposure to Aedes mosquitoes: A comprehensive geospatial analysis in peri-urban Cambodia. Acta Trop 2023; 239:106829. [PMID: 36649803 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2023.106829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Aedes mosquitoes are some of the most important and globally expansive vectors of disease. Public health efforts are largely focused on prevention of human-vector contact. A range of entomological indices are used to measure risk of disease, though with conflicting results (i.e. larval or adult abundance does not always predict risk of disease). There is a growing interest in the development and use of biomarkers for exposure to mosquito saliva, including for Aedes spp, as a proxy for disease risk. In this study, we conduct a comprehensive geostatistical analysis of exposure to Aedes mosquito bites among a pediatric cohort in a peri‑urban setting endemic to dengue, Zika, and chikungunya viruses. We use demographic, household, and environmental variables (the flooding index (NFI), land type, and proximity to a river) in a Bayesian geostatistical model to predict areas of exposure to Aedes aegypti bites. We found that hotspots of exposure to Ae. aegypti salivary gland extract (SGE) were relatively small (< 500 m and sometimes < 250 m) and stable across the two-year study period. Age was negatively associated with antibody responses to Ae. aegypti SGE. Those living in agricultural settings had lower antibody responses than those living in urban settings, whereas those living near recent surface water accumulation were more likely to have higher antibody responses. Finally, we incorporated measures of larval and adult density in our geostatistical models and found that they did not show associations with antibody responses to Ae. aegypti SGE after controlling for other covariates in the model. Our results indicate that targeted house- or neighborhood-focused interventions may be appropriate for vector control in this setting. Further, demographic and environmental factors more capably predicted exposure to Ae. aegypti mosquitoes than commonly used entomological indices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel M Parker
- Program in Public Health, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA.
| | - Catalina Medina
- Program in Public Health, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA; Department of Statistics, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Jennifer Bohl
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Chanthap Lon
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA; International Center of Excellence in Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Sophana Chea
- National Center of Parasitology, Entomology and Malaria Control, Ministry of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia; International Center of Excellence in Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Sreyngim Lay
- National Center of Parasitology, Entomology and Malaria Control, Ministry of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia; International Center of Excellence in Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Dara Kong
- National Center of Parasitology, Entomology and Malaria Control, Ministry of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Sreynik Nhek
- International Center of Excellence in Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Somnang Man
- National Center of Parasitology, Entomology and Malaria Control, Ministry of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia; International Center of Excellence in Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Johannes S P Doehl
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Rithea Leang
- National Center of Parasitology, Entomology and Malaria Control, Ministry of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Hok Kry
- Kampong Speu Provincial Health District, Ministry of Health, Cambodia
| | - Huy Rekol
- National Center of Parasitology, Entomology and Malaria Control, Ministry of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Fabiano Oliveira
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA; International Center of Excellence in Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | | | - Jessica E Manning
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA; International Center of Excellence in Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
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Marín-López A, Raduwan H, Chen TY, Utrilla-Trigo S, Wolfhard DP, Fikrig E. Mosquito Salivary Proteins and Arbovirus Infection: From Viral Enhancers to Potential Targets for Vaccines. Pathogens 2023; 12:371. [PMID: 36986293 PMCID: PMC10054260 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12030371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2023] [Revised: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Arthropod-borne viruses present important public health challenges worldwide. Viruses such as DENV, ZIKV, and WNV are of current concern due to an increasing incidence and an expanding geographic range, generating explosive outbreaks even in non-endemic areas. The clinical signs associated with infection from these arboviruses are often inapparent, mild, or nonspecific, but occasionally develop into serious complications marked by rapid onset, tremors, paralysis, hemorrhagic fever, neurological alterations, or death. They are predominately transmitted to humans through mosquito bite, during which saliva is inoculated into the skin to facilitate blood feeding. A new approach to prevent arboviral diseases has been proposed by the observation that arthropod saliva facilitates transmission of pathogens. Viruses released within mosquito saliva may more easily initiate host invasion by taking advantage of the host's innate and adaptive immune responses to saliva. This provides a rationale for creating vaccines against mosquito salivary proteins, especially because of the lack of licensed vaccines against most of these viruses. This review aims to provide an overview of the effects on the host immune response by the mosquito salivary proteins and how these phenomena alter the infection outcome for different arboviruses, recent attempts to generate mosquito salivary-based vaccines against flavivirus including DENV, ZIKV, and WNV, and the potential benefits and pitfalls that this strategy involves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Marín-López
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519, USA
| | - Hamidah Raduwan
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519, USA
| | - Tse-Yu Chen
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519, USA
| | - Sergio Utrilla-Trigo
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519, USA
- Center for Animal Health Research (CISA-INIA/CSIC), 28130 Madrid, Spain
| | - David P. Wolfhard
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519, USA
- Faculty of Engineering Sciences, Institute of Pharmacy and Molecular Biotechnology, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Erol Fikrig
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519, USA
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Kassam NA, Laswai D, Kulaya N, Kaaya RD, Kajeguka DC, Schmiegelow C, Wang CW, Alifrangis M, Kavishe RA. Human IgG responses to Aedes mosquito salivary peptide Nterm-34kDa and its comparison to Anopheles salivary antigen (gSG6-P1) IgG responses measured among individuals living in Lower Moshi, Tanzania. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0276437. [PMID: 36301860 PMCID: PMC9612500 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0276437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The level of human exposure to arbovirus vectors, the Aedes mosquitoes, is mainly assessed by entomological methods which are labour intensive, difficult to sustain at a large scale and are affected if transmission and exposure levels are low. Alternatively, serological biomarkers which detect levels of human exposure to mosquito bites may complement the existing epidemiologic tools as they seem cost-effective, simple, rapid, and sensitive. This study explored human IgG responses to an Aedes mosquito salivary gland peptide Nterm-34kDa in Lower Moshi, a highland area with evidence of circulating arboviruses and compared the Aedes IgG responses to Anopheles mosquitoes' salivary antigen (GSG6-P1) IgG responses. METHODS Three cross-sectional surveys were conducted in 2019: during the first dry season in March, at the end of the rainy season in June and during the second dry season in September in five villages located in Lower Moshi. Blood samples were collected from enrolled participants above six months of age (age span: 7 months to 94 years) and analysed for the presence of anti-Nterm-34kDa IgG antibodies. Possible associations between Nterm-34kDa seroprevalence and participants' characteristics were determined. Levels of IgG responses and seroprevalence were correlated and compared to the already measured IgG responses and seroprevalence of Anopheles mosquitoes' salivary antigen, GSG6-P1. RESULTS During the first dry season, Nterm-34kDa seroprevalence was 34.1% and significantly increased at the end of the rainy season to 45.3% (Chi square (χ2) = 6.42 p = 0.011). During the second dry season, the seroprevalence significantly declined to 26.5% (χ2 = 15.12 p<0.001). During the rainy season, seroprevalence was significantly higher among residents of Oria village (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 2.86; 95% CI = 1.0-7.8; p = 0.041) compared to Newland. Moreover, during the rainy season, the risk of exposure was significantly lower among individuals aged between 16 and 30 years (AOR = 0.25; 95% CI = 0.1 = 0.9; p = 0.036) compared to individuals aged between 0 and 5 years. There was weak to moderate negative correlation between N-term 34kDa IgG and gSG6-P1 antigens. N-term 34kDa seroprevalence were higher compared to gSG6-P1 seroprevalence. CONCLUSION The findings of this study support that IgG antibody responses towards the Aedes mosquito salivary peptide Nterm-34kDa are detectable among individuals living in lower Moshi and vary with season and geographical area. More individuals are exposed to Aedes mosquito bites than Anopheles mosquito and those exposed to Aedes bites are not necessarily exposed to Anopheles mosquitoes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy A. Kassam
- Kilimanjaro Christian Medical University College (KCMUCo), Moshi, Tanzania
- * E-mail:
| | - Daniel Laswai
- Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences (MUHAS), Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Neema Kulaya
- Kilimanjaro Christian Medical University College (KCMUCo), Moshi, Tanzania
| | - Robert D. Kaaya
- Kilimanjaro Christian Medical University College (KCMUCo), Moshi, Tanzania
- Pan-African Malaria Vector Research Consortium, Moshi, Tanzania
| | - Debora C. Kajeguka
- Kilimanjaro Christian Medical University College (KCMUCo), Moshi, Tanzania
| | - Christentze Schmiegelow
- Centre for Medical Parasitology, Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Copenhagen and Department of Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital (Rigshospitalet), Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Christian W. Wang
- Centre for Medical Parasitology, Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Copenhagen and Department of Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital (Rigshospitalet), Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Michael Alifrangis
- Centre for Medical Parasitology, Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Copenhagen and Department of Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital (Rigshospitalet), Copenhagen, Denmark
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Buezo Montero S, Gabrieli P, Poinsignon A, Zamble BZH, Lombardo F, Remoue F, Arcà B. Human IgG responses to the Aedes albopictus 34k2 salivary protein: analyses in Réunion Island and Bolivia confirm its suitability as marker of host exposure to the tiger mosquito. Parasit Vectors 2022; 15:260. [PMID: 35858924 PMCID: PMC9301888 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-022-05383-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The rapid worldwide spreading of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus is expanding the risk of arboviral diseases transmission, pointing out the urgent need to improve monitoring and control of mosquito vector populations. Assessment of human-vector contact, currently estimated by classical entomological methods, is crucial to guide planning and implementation of control measures and evaluate transmission risk. Antibody responses to mosquito genus-specific salivary proteins are emerging as a convenient complementary tool for assessing host exposure to vectors. We previously showed that IgG responses to the Ae. albopictus 34k2 salivary protein (al34k2) allow detection of seasonal and geographic variation of human exposure to the tiger mosquito in two temperate areas of Northeast Italy. The main aim of this study was to confirm and extend these promising findings to tropical areas with ongoing arboviral transmission. METHODS IgG responses to al34k2 and to the Ae. aegypti orthologous protein ae34k2 were measured by ELISA in cohorts of subjects only exposed to Ae. albopictus (Réunion Island), only exposed to Ae. aegypti (Bolivia) or unexposed to both these vectors (North of France). RESULTS AND CONCLUSION Anti-al34k2 IgG levels were significantly higher in sera of individuals from Réunion Island than in unexposed controls, indicating that al34k2 may be a convenient and reliable proxy for whole saliva or salivary gland extracts as an indicator of human exposure to Ae. albopictus. Bolivian subjects, exposed to bites of Ae. aegypti, carried in their sera IgG recognizing the Ae. albopictus al34k2 protein, suggesting that this salivary antigen can also detect, even though with low sensitivity, human exposure to Ae. aegypti. On the contrary, due to the high background observed in unexposed controls, the recombinant ae34k2 appeared not suitable for the evaluation of human exposure to Aedes mosquitoes. Overall, this study confirmed the suitability of anti-al34k2 IgG responses as a specific biomarker of human exposure to Ae. albopictus and, to a certain extent, to Ae. aegypti. Immunoassays based on al34k2 are expected to be especially effective in areas where Ae. albopictus is the main arboviral vector but may also be useful in areas where Ae. albopictus and Ae. aegypti coexist.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Buezo Montero
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Division of Parasitology, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
- Present Address: Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen, Wilhelmstrasse 27, 72074 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Paolo Gabrieli
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Anne Poinsignon
- MIVEGEC, University of Montpellier, IRD, CNRS, 34000 Montpellier, France
| | | | - Fabrizio Lombardo
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Division of Parasitology, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Franck Remoue
- MIVEGEC, University of Montpellier, IRD, CNRS, 34000 Montpellier, France
| | - Bruno Arcà
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Division of Parasitology, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
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