GCN5 is a positive regulator of origins of DNA replication in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The Gcn5-Ada2-Ada3 histone acetyltransferase module has divergent roles in pathogenesis of Candida glabrata

Candida glabrata is an opportunistic fungal pathogen and the second most prevalent species isolated from candidiasis patients. C. glabrata has intrinsic tolerance to antifungal drugs and oxidative stresses and the ability to adhere to mucocutaneous surfaces. However, knowledge about the regulation of its virulence traits is limited. The Spt-Ada-Gcn5 acetyltransferase (SAGA) complex modulates gene transcription by histone acetylation through the histone acetyltransferase (HAT) module comprised of Gcn5-Ada2-Ada3. Previously, we showed that the ada2 mutant was hypervirulent but displayed decreased tolerance to antifungal drugs and cell wall perturbing agents. In this study, we further characterized the functions of Ada3 and Gcn5 in C. glabrata. We found that single, double, or triple deletions of the HAT module, as expected, resulted in a decreased level of acetylation on histone H3 lysine 9 (H3K9) and defective growth. These mutants were more susceptible to antifungal drugs, oxidative stresses, and cell wall perturbing agents compared with the wild-type. In addition, HAT module mutants exhibited enhanced agar invasion and upregulation of adhesin and proteases encoding genes, whereas the biofilm formation of those mutants was impaired. Interestingly, HAT module mutants exhibited enhanced induction of catalases (CTA1) expression upon treatment with H2O2 compared with the wild-type. Lastly, although ada3 and gcn5 exhibited marginal hypervirulence, the HAT double and triple mutants were hypervirulent in a murine model of candidiasis. In conclusion, the HAT module of the SAGA complex plays unique roles in H3K9 acetylation, drug tolerance, oxidative stress response, adherence, and virulence in C. glabrata.

The Anaphase-Promoting Complex/Cyclosome Is a Cellular Ageing Regulator

The anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) is a complicated cellular component that plays significant roles in regulating the cell cycle process of eukaryotic organisms. The spatiotemporal regulation mechanisms of APC/C in distinct cell cycle transitions are no longer mysterious, and the components of this protein complex are gradually identified and characterized. Given the close relationship between the cell cycle and lifespan, it is urgent to understand the roles of APC/C in lifespan regulation, but this field still seems to have not been systematically summarized. Furthermore, although several reviews have reported the roles of APC/C in cancer, there are still gaps in the summary of its roles in other age-related diseases. In this review, we propose that the APC/C is a novel cellular ageing regulator based on its indispensable role in the regulation of lifespan and its involvement in age-associated diseases. This work provides an extensive review of aspects related to the underlying mechanisms of APC/C in lifespan regulation and how it participates in age-associated diseases. More comprehensive recognition and understanding of the relationship between APC/C and ageing and age-related diseases will increase the development of targeted strategies for human health.

Design, synthesis, cytotoxicity, and molecular docking studies of novel thiazolyl-hydrazone derivatives as histone lysine acetyl-transferase inhibitors and apoptosis inducers

Compounds containing both thiazole and arylsulfone moieties are recognized for their high biological activity and ability to fight a variety of ailments. Thus, in this context, new derivatives of (thiazol-2-yl)hydrazone with an arylsulfone moiety were synthesized as CPTH2 analogs with potent anti-histone lysine acetyl-transferase activity. Compounds 3, 4, 10b, and 11b showed an excellent inhibitory effect on P300 (E1A-associated protein p300), compared to CPTH2. Among all the tested derivatives, compound 10b revealed the highest activity against both P300 and pCAF. In addition, the new hits were tested for anticancer efficacy against two leukemia cell lines. Most of them showed a moderate to potent antitumor effect on the k562 and CCRF-CEM cell lines. Interestingly, the activity of compound 10b against the k562 cell line was found to be higher than that of CPTH2. Furthermore, it showed a good safety profile, better than CPTH2 on normal cells. Molecular docking analysis was carried out to reveal the crucial binding contacts in the inhibition of the P300 and pCAF enzymes.

Su(Hw) primes 66D and 7F Drosophila chorion genes loci for amplification through chromatin decondensation

Suppressor of Hairy wing [Su(Hw)] is an insulator protein that participates in regulating chromatin architecture and gene repression in Drosophila. In previous studies we have shown that Su(Hw) is also required for pre-replication complex (pre-RC) recruitment on Su(Hw)-bound sites (SBSs) in Drosophila S2 cells and pupa. Here, we describe the effect of Su(Hw) on developmentally regulated amplification of 66D and 7F Drosophila amplicons in follicle cells (DAFCs), widely used as models in replication studies. We show Su(Hw) binding co-localizes with all known DAFCs in Drosophila ovaries, whereas disruption of Su(Hw) binding to 66D and 7F DAFCs causes a two-fold decrease in the amplification of these loci. The complete loss of Su(Hw) binding to chromatin impairs pre-RC recruitment to all amplification regulatory regions of 66D and 7F loci at early oogenesis (prior to DAFCs amplification). These changes coincide with a considerable Su(Hw)-dependent condensation of chromatin at 66D and 7F loci. Although we observed the Brm, ISWI, Mi-2, and CHD1 chromatin remodelers at SBSs genome wide, their remodeler activity does not appear to be responsible for chromatin decondensation at the 66D and 7F amplification regulatory regions. We have discovered that, in addition to the CBP/Nejire and Chameau histone acetyltransferases, the Gcn5 acetyltransferase binds to 66D and 7F DAFCs at SBSs and this binding is dependent on Su(Hw). We propose that the main function of Su(Hw) in developmental amplification of 66D and 7F DAFCs is to establish a chromatin structure that is permissive to pre-RC recruitment.

Set1-dependent H3K4 methylation becomes critical for limiting DNA damage in response to changes in S-phase dynamics in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

DNA replication is a highly regulated process that occurs in the context of chromatin structure and is sensitive to several histone post-translational modifications. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the histone methylase Set1 is responsible for the transcription-dependent deposition of H3K4 methylation (H3K4me) throughout the genome. Here we show that a combination of a hypomorphic replication mutation (orc5-1) with the absence of Set1 (set1Δ) compromises the progression through S-phase, and this is associated with a large increase in DNA damage. The ensuing DNA damage checkpoint activation, in addition to that of the spindle assembly checkpoint, restricts the growth of orc5-1 set1Δ. The opposite effects of the lack of RNase H activity and the reduction of histone levels on orc5-1 set1Δ viability are in agreement with their expected effects on replication fork progression. We propose that the role of H3K4 methylation during DNA replication becomes critical when the replication forks acceleration due to decreased origin firing in the orc5-1 background increases the risk for transcription replication conflicts. Furthermore, we show that an increase of reactive oxygen species levels, likely a consequence of the elevated DNA damage, is partly responsible for the lethality in orc5-1 set1Δ.

Cell cycle roles for GCN5 revealed through genetic suppression

The conserved acetyltransferase Gcn5 is a member of several complexes in eukaryotic cells, playing roles in regulating chromatin organization, gene expression, metabolism, and cell growth and differentiation via acetylation of both nuclear and cytoplasmic proteins. Distinct functions of Gcn5 have been revealed through a combination of biochemical and genetic approaches in many in vitro studies and model organisms. In this review, we focus on the unique insights that have been gleaned from suppressor studies of gcn5 phenotypes in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Such studies were fundamental in the early understanding of the balance of counteracting chromatin activities in regulating transcription. Most recently, suppressor screens have revealed roles for Gcn5 in early cell cycle (G₁ to S) gene expression and regulation of chromosome segregation during mitosis. Much has been learned, but many questions remain which will be informed by focused analysis of additional genetic and physical interactions.

Metazoan DNA replication origins

DNA replication starts with the opening of DNA at sites called DNA replication origins. From the single sequence-specific DNA replication origin of the small Escherichia coli genome, up to thousands of origins that are necessary to replicate the large human genome, strict sequence specificity has been lost. Nevertheless, genome-wide analyses performed in the recent years, using different mapping methods, demonstrated that there are precise locations along the metazoan genome from which replication initiates. These sites contain relaxed sequence consensus and epigenetic features. There is flexibility in the choice of origins to be used during a given cell cycle, probably imposed by evolution and developmental constraints. Here, we will briefly describe their main features.

Dependency of Heterochromatin Domains on Replication Factors

Chromatin structure regulates both genome expression and dynamics in eukaryotes, where large heterochromatic regions are epigenetically silenced through the methylation of histone H3K9, histone deacetylation, and the assembly of repressive complexes. Previous genetic screens with the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe have led to the identification of key enzymatic activities and structural constituents of heterochromatin. We report here on additional factors discovered by screening a library of deletion mutants for silencing defects at the edge of a heterochromatic domain bound by its natural boundary-the IR-R+ element-or by ectopic boundaries. We found that several components of the DNA replication progression complex (RPC), including Mrc1/Claspin, Mcl1/Ctf4, Swi1/Timeless, Swi3/Tipin, and the FACT subunit Pob3, are essential for robust heterochromatic silencing, as are the ubiquitin ligase components Pof3 and Def1, which have been implicated in the removal of stalled DNA and RNA polymerases from chromatin. Moreover, the search identified the cohesin release factor Wpl1 and the forkhead protein Fkh2, both likely to function through genome organization, the Ssz1 chaperone, the Fkbp39 proline cis-trans isomerase, which acts on histone H3P30 and P38 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and the chromatin remodeler Fft3. In addition to their effects in the mating-type region, to varying extents, these factors take part in heterochromatic silencing in pericentromeric regions and telomeres, revealing for many a general effect in heterochromatin. This list of factors provides precious new clues with which to study the spatiotemporal organization and dynamics of heterochromatic regions in connection with DNA replication.

KAT2-mediated PLK4 acetylation contributes to genomic stability by preserving centrosome number

We have recently identified the first human lysine (K) acetyltransferase 2A and 2B (called KAT2A/2B; known also as GCN5/PCAF, respectively)-dependent acetylome and revealed a mechanism by which KAT2A/2B-mediated acetylation of serine/threonine polo-like kinase 4 (PLK4) maintains correct centrosome number in human cells, therefore contributing to the maintenance of genome stability.¹

KAT2A/KAT2B-targeted acetylome reveals a role for PLK4 acetylation in preventing centrosome amplification

Lysine acetylation is a widespread post-translational modification regulating various biological processes. To characterize cellular functions of the human lysine acetyltransferases KAT2A (GCN5) and KAT2B (PCAF), we determined their acetylome by shotgun proteomics. One of the newly identified KAT2A/2B substrate is polo-like kinase 4 (PLK4), a key regulator of centrosome duplication. We demonstrate that KAT2A/2B acetylate the PLK4 kinase domain on residues K45 and K46. Molecular dynamics modelling suggests that K45/K46 acetylation impairs kinase activity by shifting the kinase to an inactive conformation. Accordingly, PLK4 activity is reduced upon in vitro acetylation of its kinase domain. Moreover, the overexpression of the PLK4 K45R/K46R mutant in cells does not lead to centrosome overamplification, as observed with wild-type PLK4. We also find that impairing KAT2A/2B-acetyltransferase activity results in diminished phosphorylation of PLK4 and in excess centrosome numbers in cells. Overall, our study identifies the global human KAT2A/2B acetylome and uncovers that KAT2A/2B acetylation of PLK4 prevents centrosome amplification.

The acetyltransferases KAT2A and KAT2B are essential regulators of transcription, cell cycle progression and DNA repair. Here the authors describe a KAT2A/2B-dependent acetylome, and show that acetylation of the protein kinase PLK4 contributes to the regulation of centrosome number.

Orc5 induces large-scale chromatin decondensation in a GCN5-dependent manner

In eukaryotes, origin recognition complex (ORC) proteins establish the pre-replicative complex (preRC) at the origins, and this is essential for the initiation of DNA replication. Open chromatin structures regulate the efficiency of preRC formation and replication initiation. However, the molecular mechanisms that control chromatin structure, and how the preRC components establish themselves on the chromatin remain to be understood. In human cells, the ORC is a highly dynamic complex with many separate functions attributed to sub-complexes or individual subunits of the ORC, including heterochromatin organization, telomere and centromere function, centrosome duplication and cytokinesis. We demonstrate that human Orc5, unlike other ORC subunits, when ectopically tethered to a chromatin locus, induces large-scale chromatin decondensation, predominantly during G1 phase of the cell cycle. Orc5 associates with the H3 histone acetyl transferase GCN5 (also known as KAT2A), and this association enhances the chromatin-opening function of Orc5. In the absence of Orc5, histone H3 acetylation is decreased at the origins. We propose that the ability of Orc5 to induce chromatin unfolding during G1 allows the establishment of the preRC at the origins.

Role of SAGA in the asymmetric segregation of DNA circles during yeast ageing

In eukaryotes, intra-chromosomal recombination generates DNA circles, but little is known about how cells react to them. In yeast, partitioning of such circles to the mother cell at mitosis ensures their loss from the population but promotes replicative ageing. Nevertheless, the mechanisms of partitioning are debated. In this study, we show that the SAGA complex mediates the interaction of non-chromosomal DNA circles with nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) and thereby promotes their confinement in the mother cell. Reciprocally, this causes retention and accumulation of NPCs, which affects the organization of ageing nuclei. Thus, SAGA prevents the spreading of DNA circles by linking them to NPCs, but unavoidably causes accumulation of circles and NPCs in the mother cell, and thereby promotes ageing. Together, our data provide a unifying model for the asymmetric segregation of DNA circles and how age affects nuclear organization.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.03790.001

Budding yeast is a microorganism that has been widely studied to understand how it and many other organisms, including animals, age over time. This yeast is so named because it proliferates by ‘budding’ daughter cells out of the surface of a mother cell. For each daughter cell that buds, the mother cell loses some fitness and eventually dies after a certain number of budding events. This process is called ‘replicative ageing’, and it also resembles the way that stem cells age. In contrast, the newly formed daughters essentially have their age ‘reset to zero’ and grow until they turn into mother cells themselves.

Several molecules or factors have been linked to replicative ageing. These are retained in the mother cell during budding, rather than being passed on to the daughters. Non-chromosomal DNA circles, for example, are rings of DNA that detach from chromosomes during DNA repair and that accumulate inside the ageing mother cell over time. How the mother cells retain these circles of DNA is an on-going topic of debate.

Similar to plants and animals, chromosomes in yeast cells are confined in a membrane-bound structure known as the cell nucleus. The nuclear membrane is perforated by channels called nuclear pore complexes that ensure the transport of molecules into, and out of, the nucleus. Now, Denoth-Lippuner et al. establish that for the non-chromosomal DNA circles to be efficiently confined in the mother cell, the DNA circles must be anchored to the nuclear pore complexes.

Denoth-Lippuner et al. next asked how the DNA circles were anchored to these complexes; and found that another complex of proteins known as SAGA is involved. When components of the SAGA complex were deleted in budding yeast cells, non-chromosomal DNA circles spread into the daughters as well. On the other hand, artificially anchoring these DNA circles to the nuclear pore complex alleviated the need for the SAGA complex, in order to retain these molecules in the mother cell.

Denoth-Lippuner et al. also show that SAGA-dependent attachment of the DNA circles to the nuclear pore complexes causes these complexes to remain in the mother cell. As a consequence, these nuclear pore complexes accumulate in the mother cells as they age. The number of nuclear pore complexes in the daughter cells, however, remained fairly constant. Together these data raise the question of whether the effects of DNA circles on the number and activity of the nuclear pores might account for their contribution to ageing, perhaps by affecting the workings of the nucleus.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.03790.002

Septin ring assembly is regulated by Spt20, a structural subunit of SAGA complex

Accurate cell division requires proper assembly of high-order septin structures. In fission yeast, Spn1-4 are assembled into a primary septin ring at the division site, and the subsequent recruitment of Mid2 to the structure results in a stable septin ring. However, not much is known about the regulation of this key process. Here, we found deletion of Spt20, a structural subunit of SAGA transcriptional activation complex, caused a severe cell separation defect. The defect is mainly due to impaired septin ring assembly, as 80% of spt20Δ cells lost septin rings at the division sites. Spt20 regulates septin ring assembly partially through the transcriptional activation of mid2+. Spt20 also interacts with Spn2 and Mid2 in vitro and is associated with other components of the ring in vivo. Spt20 is co-localized with the septin ring, but does not separate when the septin ring splits. Importantly, Spt20 regulates the stability of the septin ring and is required for the recruitment of Mid2. The transcription-dependent and -independent roles of Spt20 in the septin ring assembly highlight a multifaceted regulation of one process by a SAGA subunit.

Controlling DNA replication origins in response to DNA damage - inhibit globally, activate locally

DNA replication in eukaryotic cells initiates from multiple replication origins that are distributed throughout the genome. Coordinating the usage of these origins is crucial to ensure complete and timely replication of the entire genome precisely once in each cell cycle. Replication origins fire according to a cell-type-specific temporal programme, which is established in the G1 phase of each cell cycle. In response to conditions causing the slowing or stalling of DNA replication forks, the programme of origin firing is altered in two contrasting ways, depending on chromosomal context. First, inactive or 'dormant' replication origins in the vicinity of the stalled replication fork become activated and, second, the S phase checkpoint induces a global shutdown of further origin firing throughout the genome. Here, we review our current understanding on the role of dormant origins and the S phase checkpoint in the rescue of stalled forks and the completion of DNA replication in the presence of replicative stress.

DNA replication origin function is promoted by H3K4 di-methylation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

DNA replication is a highly regulated process that is initiated from replication origins, but the elements of chromatin structure that contribute to origin activity have not been fully elucidated. To identify histone post-translational modifications important for DNA replication, we initiated a genetic screen to identify interactions between genes encoding chromatin-modifying enzymes and those encoding proteins required for origin function in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We found that enzymes required for histone H3K4 methylation, both the histone methyltransferase Set1 and the E3 ubiquitin ligase Bre1, are required for robust growth of several hypomorphic replication mutants, including cdc6-1. Consistent with a role for these enzymes in DNA replication, we found that both Set1 and Bre1 are required for efficient minichromosome maintenance. These phenotypes are recapitulated in yeast strains bearing mutations in the histone substrates (H3K4 and H2BK123). Set1 functions as part of the COMPASS complex to mono-, di-, and tri-methylate H3K4. By analyzing strains lacking specific COMPASS complex members or containing H2B mutations that differentially affect H3K4 methylation states, we determined that these replication defects were due to loss of H3K4 di-methylation. Furthermore, histone H3K4 di-methylation is enriched at chromosomal origins. These data suggest that H3K4 di-methylation is necessary and sufficient for normal origin function. We propose that histone H3K4 di-methylation functions in concert with other histone post-translational modifications to support robust genome duplication.

The p23 molecular chaperone and GCN5 acetylase jointly modulate protein-DNA dynamics and open chromatin status

Cellular processes function through multistep pathways that are reliant on the controlled association and disassociation of sequential protein complexes. While dynamic action is critical to propagate and terminate work, the mechanisms used to disassemble biological structures are not fully understood. Here we show that the p23 molecular chaperone initiates disassembly of protein-DNA complexes and that the GCN5 acetyltransferase prolongs the dissociated state through lysine acetylation. By modulating the DNA-bound state, we found that the conserved and essential joint activities of p23 and GCN5 impacted transcription factor activation potential and response time to an environmental cue. Notably, p23 and GCN5 were required to maintain open chromatin regions along the genome, indicating that dynamic protein behavior is a critical feature of various DNA-associated events. Our data support a model in which p23 and GCN5 regulate diverse multistep pathways by controlling the longevity of protein-DNA complexes.

The histone acetyltransferases CBP and Chameau integrate developmental and DNA replication programs in Drosophila ovarian follicle cells

DNA replication origin activity changes during development. Chromatin modifications are known to influence the genomic location of origins and the time during S phase that they initiate replication in different cells. However, how chromatin regulates origins in concert with cell differentiation remains poorly understood. Here, we use developmental gene amplification in Drosophila ovarian follicle cells as a model to investigate how chromatin modifiers regulate origins in a developmental context. We find that the histone acetyltransferase (HAT) Chameau (Chm) binds to amplicon origins and is partially required for their function. Depletion of Chm had relatively mild effects on origins during gene amplification and genomic replication compared with previous knockdown of its ortholog HBO1 in human cells, which has severe effects on origin function. We show that another HAT, CBP (Nejire), also binds amplicon origins and is partially required for amplification. Knockdown of Chm and CBP together had a more severe effect on nucleosome acetylation and amplicon origin activity than knockdown of either HAT alone, suggesting that these HATs collaborate in origin regulation. In addition to their local function at the origin, we show that Chm and CBP also globally regulate the developmental transition of follicle cells into the amplification stages of oogenesis. Our results reveal a complexity of origin epigenetic regulation by multiple HATs during development and suggest that chromatin modifiers are a nexus that integrates differentiation and DNA replication programs.

CPTH6, a thiazole derivative, induces histone hypoacetylation and apoptosis in human leukemia cells

PURPOSE

We previously identified novel thiazole derivatives able to reduce histone acetylation and histone acetyltransferase (HAT) activity in yeast. Among these compounds, 3-methylcyclopentylidene-[4-(4'-chlorophenyl)thiazol-2-yl]hydrazone (CPTH6) has been selected and used throughout this study.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

The effect of CPTH6 on histone acetylation, cell viability and differentiation, cell-cycle distribution, and apoptosis in a panel of acute myeloid leukemia and solid tumor cell lines has been evaluated.

RESULTS

Here, we showed that CPTH6 leads to an inhibition of Gcn5 and pCAF HAT activity. Moreover, it inhibits H3/H4 histones and α-tubulin acetylation of a panel of leukemia cell lines. Concentration- and time-dependent inhibition of cell viability, paralleled by accumulation of cells in the G(0)/G(1) phase and depletion from the S/G(2)M phases, was observed. The role of mitochondrial pathway on CPTH6-induced apoptosis was shown, being a decrease of mitochondrial membrane potential and the release of cytochrome c, from mitochondria to cytosol, induced by CPTH6. Also the involvement of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL on CPTH6-induced apoptosis was found after overexpression of the two proteins in leukemia cells. Solid tumor cell lines from several origins were shown to be differently sensitive to CPTH6 treatment in terms of cell viability, and a correlation between the inhibitory efficacy on H3/H4 histones acetylation and cytotoxicity was found. Differentiating effect on leukemia and neuroblastoma cell lines was also induced by CPTH6.

CONCLUSIONS

These results make CPTH6 a suitable tool for discovery of molecular targets of HAT and, potentially, for the development of new anticancer therapies, which warrants further investigations.

All roads lead to chromatin: Multiple pathways for histone deposition

Chromatin, a complex of DNA and associated proteins, governs diverse processes including gene transcription, DNA replication and DNA repair. The fundamental unit of chromatin is the nucleosome, consisting of 147bp of DNA wound about 1.6 turns around a histone octamer of one (H3-H4)(2) tetramer and two H2A-H2B dimers. In order to form nucleosomes, (H3-H4)(2) tetramers are deposited first, followed by the rapid deposition of H2A-H2B. It is believed that the assembly of (H3-H4)(2) tetramers into nucleosomes is the rate-limiting step of nucleosome assembly. Moreover, assembly of H3-H4 into nucleosomes following DNA replication, DNA repair and gene transcription is likely to be a key step in the inheritance of epigenetic information and maintenance of genome integrity. In this review, we discuss how nucleosome assembly of H3-H4 is regulated by concerted actions of histone chaperones and modifications on newly synthesized H3 and H4. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Histone chaperones and Chromatin assembly.

And-1 is required for the stability of histone acetyltransferase Gcn5

Histone acetyltransferases (HATs) play a central role in the modification of chromatin as well as in pathogenesis of a broad set of diseases including cancers. Gcn5 is the first identified transcription-related histone acetyltransferase (HAT) that has been implicated in the regulation of diverse cellular functions. However, how Gcn5 proteins are regulated remains largely unknown. Here we show that And-1 (a HMG domain-containing protein) has remarkable capability to regulate the stability of Gcn5 proteins and thereby histone H3 acetylation. We find that And-1 forms a complex with both histone H3 and Gcn5. Downregulation of And-1 results in Gcn5 degradation, leading to the reduction of H3K9 and H3K56 acetylation. And-1 overexpression stabilizes Gcn5 through protein-protein interactions in vivo. Furthermore, And-1 expression is increased in cancer cells in a manner correlating with increased Gcn5 and H3K9Ac and H3K56Ac. Thus, our data reveal not only a functional link between Gcn5 and And-1 that is essential to regulate Gcn5 protein stability and histone H3 acetylation, but also a potential role of And-1 in cancer.

Physical and functional HAT/HDAC interplay regulates protein acetylation balance

The balance between protein acetylation and deacetylation controls several physiological and pathological cellular processes, and the enzymes involved in the maintenance of this equilibrium—acetyltransferases (HATs) and deacetylases (HDACs)—have been widely studied. Presently, the evidences obtained in this field suggest that the dynamic acetylation equilibrium is mostly maintained through the physical and functional interplay between HAT and HDAC activities. This model overcomes the classical vision in which the epigenetic marks of acetylation have only an activating function whereas deacetylation marks have a repressing activity. Given the existence of several players involved in the preservation of this equilibrium, the identification of these complex networks of interacting proteins will likely foster our understanding of how cells regulate intracellular processes and respond to the extracellular environment and will offer the rationale for new therapeutic approaches based on epigenetic drugs in human diseases.

Roles for Gcn5 in promoting nucleosome assembly and maintaining genome integrity

The process of coordinated DNA replication and nucleosome assembly, termed replication-coupled (RC) nucleosome assembly, is important for the maintenance of genome integrity. Loss of genome integrity is linked to aging and cancer. RC nucleosome assembly involves deposition of histone H3-H4 by the histone chaperones CAF-1, Rtt106 and Asf1 onto newly-replicated DNA. Coordinated actions of these three histone chaperones are regulated by modifications on the histone proteins. One such modification is histone H3 lysine 56 acetylation (H3K56Ac), a mark of newly-synthesized histone H3 that regulates the interaction between H3-H4 and the histone chaperones CAF-1 and Rtt106 following DNA replication and DNA repair. Recently, we have shown that the lysine acetyltransferase Gcn5 and H3 N-terminal tail lysine acetylation also regulates the interaction between H3-H4 and CAF-1 to promote the deposition of newly-synthesized histones. Genetic studies indicate that Gcn5 and Rtt109, the H3K56Ac lysine acetyltransferase, function in parallel to maintain genome stability. Utilizing synthetic genetic array analysis, we set out to identify additional genes that function in parallel with Gcn5 in response to DNA damage. We summarize here the role of Gcn5 in nucleosome assembly and suggest that Gcn5 impacts genome integrity via multiple mechanisms, including nucleosome assembly.