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Abstract
The transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 ion channel (TRPV1) is a ligand-gated nonselective calcium-permeant cation channel involved in the detection of a wide variety of chemical and physical noxious stimuli, ranging from exogenous and endogenous ligands to noxious heat (>42 °C) and low pH (pH < 5.2). Due to its central role in pain and hyperalgesia, TRPV1 is considered a relevant therapeutic target for the development of analgesic and anti-inflammatory drugs potentially useful to relieve chronic, neuropathic, and inflammatory pain and to treat disorders such as inflammatory bowel disease. In this view, the availability of in vitro assays for the screening of novel TRPV1 modulators is highly desirable. Since TRPV1 activation leads to an increase in the intracellular calcium (Ca2+) levels, the use of Ca2+ fluorescent indicators represent a valuable and sensitive tool for monitoring such intracellular changes. In this chapter, we describe methods for recording and monitoring Ca2+ signals through the fluorescent indicators Fluo-4 acetoxymethyl (AM) and Fura-2 AM in HEK-293 cells transfected with TRPV1 or other thermoTRP channels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aniello Schiano Moriello
- Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry (ICB)-National Research Council (CNR), Pozzuoli, NA, Italy
- Epitech Group SpA, Padova, Italy
| | - Luciano De Petrocellis
- Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry (ICB)-National Research Council (CNR), Pozzuoli, NA, Italy.
- Endocannabinoid Research Group - Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry (ICB)-National Research Council (CNR), Pozzuoli, NA, Italy.
| | - Rosa Maria Vitale
- Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry (ICB)-National Research Council (CNR), Pozzuoli, NA, Italy
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2
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Scheyer A, Yasmin F, Naskar S, Patel S. Endocannabinoids at the synapse and beyond: implications for neuropsychiatric disease pathophysiology and treatment. Neuropsychopharmacology 2023; 48:37-53. [PMID: 36100658 PMCID: PMC9700791 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-022-01438-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Revised: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Endocannabinoids (eCBs) are lipid neuromodulators that suppress neurotransmitter release, reduce postsynaptic excitability, activate astrocyte signaling, and control cellular respiration. Here, we describe canonical and emerging eCB signaling modes and aim to link adaptations in these signaling systems to pathological states. Adaptations in eCB signaling systems have been identified in a variety of biobehavioral and physiological process relevant to neuropsychiatric disease states including stress-related disorders, epilepsy, developmental disorders, obesity, and substance use disorders. These insights have enhanced our understanding of the pathophysiology of neurological and psychiatric disorders and are contributing to the ongoing development of eCB-targeting therapeutics. We suggest future studies aimed at illuminating how adaptations in canonical as well as emerging cellular and synaptic modes of eCB signaling contribute to disease pathophysiology or resilience could further advance these novel treatment approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Farhana Yasmin
- Northwestern Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience, Chicago, IL, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Saptarnab Naskar
- Northwestern Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience, Chicago, IL, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Sachin Patel
- Northwestern Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience, Chicago, IL, USA.
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA.
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3
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Simone JJ, Green MR, McCormick CM. Endocannabinoid system contributions to sex-specific adolescent neurodevelopment. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2022; 113:110438. [PMID: 34534603 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2021.110438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
With an increasing number of countries and states adopting legislation permitting the use of cannabis for medical purposes, there is a growing interest among health and research professionals into the system through which cannabinoids principally act, the endocannabinoid system (ECS). Much of the seminal research into the ECS dates back only 30 years and, although there has been tremendous development within the field during this time, many questions remain. More recently, investigations have emerged examining the contributions of the ECS to normative development and the effect of altering this system during important critical periods. One such period is adolescence, a unique period during which brain and behaviours are maturing and reorganizing in preparation for adulthood, including shifts in endocannabinoid biology. The purpose of this review is to discuss findings to date regarding the maturation of the ECS during adolescence and the consequences of manipulations of the ECS during this period to normative neurodevelopmental processes, as well as highlight sex differences in ECS function, important technical considerations, and future directions. Because most of what we know is derived from preclinical studies on rodents, we provide relevant background of this model and some commentary on the translational relevance of the research in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan J Simone
- Department of Biological Sciences, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada; Centre for Neuroscience, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada; Huxley Health Inc., 8820 Jane St., Concord, ON, L4K 2M9, Canada; eCB Consulting Inc., PO Box 652, 3 Cameron St. W., Cannington, ON L0E 1E0, Canada; Medical Cannabis Canada, 601-3500 Lakeshore Rd. W., Oakville, ON L6L 0B4, Canada.
| | - Matthew R Green
- eCB Consulting Inc., PO Box 652, 3 Cameron St. W., Cannington, ON L0E 1E0, Canada; Medical Cannabis Canada, 601-3500 Lakeshore Rd. W., Oakville, ON L6L 0B4, Canada.
| | - Cheryl M McCormick
- Department of Biological Sciences, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada; Centre for Neuroscience, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada; Department of Psychology, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada.
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Kaczocha M, Haj-Dahmane S. Mechanisms of endocannabinoid transport in the brain. Br J Pharmacol 2021; 179:4300-4310. [PMID: 33786823 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Revised: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The endocannabinoids 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) and anandamide are among the best studied lipid messengers in the brain. By activating cannabinoid receptors in the CNS, endocannabinoids tune synaptic function, thereby influencing a variety of physiological and behavioural processes. Extensive research conducted over the last few decades has considerably enhanced our understanding of the molecular mechanisms and physiological functions of the endocannabinoid system. It is now well-established that endocannabinoids are synthesized by postsynaptic neurons and serve as retrograde messengers that suppress neurotransmitter release at central synapses. While the detailed mechanisms by which endocannabinoids gate synaptic function and behavioural processes are relatively well characterized, the mechanisms governing endocannabinoid transport at central synapses remain ill defined. Recently, several studies have begun to unravel the mechanisms governing intracellular and intercellular endocannabinoid transport. In this review, we will focus on new advances in the mechanisms of intracellular and synaptic endocannabinoid transport in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Kaczocha
- Department of Anesthesiology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, USA.,Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, USA
| | - Samir Haj-Dahmane
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA.,Neuroscience Program, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
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Taylor AH, Tortolani D, Ayakannu T, Konje JC, Maccarrone M. (Endo)Cannabinoids and Gynaecological Cancers. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 13:cancers13010037. [PMID: 33375539 PMCID: PMC7795647 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13010037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Cancers of the female reproductive system are common and are responsible for a large number of deaths in women. The exact reasons why some of these cancers occur are unknown. It is, however, known that for most of these cancers, several factors interact for them to happen. These interactions involve factors external and internal to the woman. An understanding of some of the internal factors involved in how these cancers arise will not only help drive preventive strategies, but will speed the development of new treatment approaches. The endocannabinoid system is a family including chemicals (known as endocannabinoids) produced in the body that are similar to those derived from the cannabis plant. This system, which is widely distributed in the body, has been shown to be involved in various functions. Its disruption has been shown to lead to various diseases, one of which is cancer. In this review, we summarise current knowledge of this system, its various constituents, and how they are involved in reproductive events and their pathologies, especially cancers. Furthermore, we discuss the role of the endocannabinoid system in these cancers and how targeting it could lead to new approaches to diagnosis and treatment of cancers of the female reproductive system. Abstract Gynaecological cancers can be primary neoplasms, originating either from the reproductive tract or the products of conception, or secondary neoplasms, representative of metastatic disease. For some of these cancers, the exact causes are unknown; however, it is recognised that the precise aetiopathogeneses for most are multifactorial and include exogenous (such as diet) and endogenous factors (such as genetic predisposition), which mutually interact in a complex manner. One factor that has been recognised to be involved in the pathogenesis and progression of gynaecological cancers is the endocannabinoid system (ECS). The ECS consists of endocannabinoids (bioactive lipids), their receptors, and metabolic enzymes responsible for their synthesis and degradation. In this review, the impact of plant-derived (Cannabis species) cannabinoids and endocannabinoids on gynaecological cancers will be discussed within the context of the complexity of the proteins that bind, transport, and metabolise these compounds in reproductive and other tissues. In particular, the potential of endocannabinoids, their receptors, and metabolic enzymes as biomarkers of specific cancers, such as those of the endometrium, will be addressed. Additionally, the therapeutic potential of targeting selected elements of the ECS as new action points for the development of innovative drugs will be presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony H. Taylor
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Reproductive Sciences Section, Department of Cancer Studies and Molecular Medicine, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK; (A.H.T.); (T.A.)
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK
| | - Daniel Tortolani
- European Centre for Brain Research, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, 00164 Rome, Italy;
| | - Thangesweran Ayakannu
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Reproductive Sciences Section, Department of Cancer Studies and Molecular Medicine, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK; (A.H.T.); (T.A.)
- Gynaecology Oncology Cancer Centre, Liverpool Women’s NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool Women’s Hospital, Liverpool L8 7SS, UK
- Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GB, UK
| | - Justin C. Konje
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Reproductive Sciences Section, Department of Cancer Studies and Molecular Medicine, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK; (A.H.T.); (T.A.)
- Correspondence: (J.C.K.); (M.M.); Tel.: +97-0470-494048 (J.C.K.); +39-0862-433547 (M.M.)
| | - Mauro Maccarrone
- European Centre for Brain Research, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, 00164 Rome, Italy;
- Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences, University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
- Correspondence: (J.C.K.); (M.M.); Tel.: +97-0470-494048 (J.C.K.); +39-0862-433547 (M.M.)
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Andrade F, Rangel-Sandoval C, Rodríguez-Hernández A, López-Dyck E, Elizalde A, Virgen-Ortiz A, Bonales-Alatorre E, Valencia-Cruz G, Sánchez-Pastor E. Capsaicin Causes Vasorelaxation of Rat Aorta through Blocking of L-type Ca 2+ Channels and Activation of CB 1 Receptors. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25173957. [PMID: 32872656 PMCID: PMC7504815 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25173957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Revised: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this work was to determine whether Capsaicin may exert a vascular regulation through the activation of CB1 and/or CB2 receptors causing vasorelaxation in the rat aorta. Our results show the location of TRPV1 mainly in the endothelial and smooth muscle cells membrane. Nevertheless, Capsaicin caused vasorelaxation of this artery through a mechanism independent of TRPV1, since the specific antagonists Capsazepine and SB-366791 did not block the effect of Capsaicin. Because the significant expression of CB1 and CB2 receptors has been previously reported in the rat aorta, we used antagonists for these two receptors prior to the addition of Capsaicin. In these experiments, we found that the inhibition of CB1 using AM281, decreases the vasorelaxant effect caused by Capsaicin. On the other hand, the vasorelaxant effect is not altered in the presence of the CB2 receptor antagonist AM630. Furthermore, a partial decrease of the effect of Capsaicin was also seen when L-type calcium channels are blocked. A complete block of Capsaicin-induced vasorelaxation was achieved using a combination of Verapamil and AM281. In accordance to our results, Capsaicin-induced vasorelaxation of the rat aorta is neither dependent of TRPV1 or CB2 receptors, but rather it is strongly suggested that a tandem mechanism between inactivation of L-type calcium channels and the direct activation of CB1 receptors is involved. These findings are supported by CB1 docking simulation which predicted a binding site on CB1 receptors for Capsaicin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felipa Andrade
- National Technological Institute of Mexico/Technological Institute of Colima, Avenida Tecnológico No. 1, CP 28976 Villa de Álvarez, Colima, Mexico;
| | - Cinthia Rangel-Sandoval
- University Center for Biomedical Research, University of Colima, Apdo. Postal No. 11, CP 28040 Colima, Colima, Mexico; (C.R.-S.); (A.E.); (A.V.-O.); (E.B.-A.); (G.V.-C.)
| | | | - Evelyn López-Dyck
- State University of Sonora, Navojoa Academic Unit. Blvd. Manlio Fabio Beltrones 810, CP 85875 Navojoa, Sonora, Mexico;
| | - Alejandro Elizalde
- University Center for Biomedical Research, University of Colima, Apdo. Postal No. 11, CP 28040 Colima, Colima, Mexico; (C.R.-S.); (A.E.); (A.V.-O.); (E.B.-A.); (G.V.-C.)
| | - Adolfo Virgen-Ortiz
- University Center for Biomedical Research, University of Colima, Apdo. Postal No. 11, CP 28040 Colima, Colima, Mexico; (C.R.-S.); (A.E.); (A.V.-O.); (E.B.-A.); (G.V.-C.)
| | - Edgar Bonales-Alatorre
- University Center for Biomedical Research, University of Colima, Apdo. Postal No. 11, CP 28040 Colima, Colima, Mexico; (C.R.-S.); (A.E.); (A.V.-O.); (E.B.-A.); (G.V.-C.)
| | - Georgina Valencia-Cruz
- University Center for Biomedical Research, University of Colima, Apdo. Postal No. 11, CP 28040 Colima, Colima, Mexico; (C.R.-S.); (A.E.); (A.V.-O.); (E.B.-A.); (G.V.-C.)
| | - Enrique Sánchez-Pastor
- University Center for Biomedical Research, University of Colima, Apdo. Postal No. 11, CP 28040 Colima, Colima, Mexico; (C.R.-S.); (A.E.); (A.V.-O.); (E.B.-A.); (G.V.-C.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +52 (312) 31-611-29
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Martín Giménez VM, Russo MG, Narda GE, Fuentes LB, Mazzei L, Gamarra-Luques C, Kassuha DE, Manucha W. Synthesis, physicochemical characterisation and biological activity of anandamide/ɛ-polycaprolactone nanoparticles obtained by electrospraying. IET Nanobiotechnol 2020; 14:86-93. [PMID: 31935683 PMCID: PMC8676047 DOI: 10.1049/iet-nbt.2019.0108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2019] [Revised: 10/03/2019] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug encapsulation in nanocarriers such as polymeric nanoparticles (Nps) may help to overcome the limitations associated with cannabinoids. In this study, the authors' work aimed to highlight the use of electrospraying techniques for the development of carrier Nps of anandamide (AEA), an endocannabinoid with attractive pharmacological effects but underestimated due to its unfavourable physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties added to its undesirable effects at the level of the central nervous system. The authors characterised physicochemically and evaluated in vitro biological activity of anandamide/ɛ-polycaprolactone nanoparticles (Nps-AEA/PCL) obtained by electrospraying in epithelial cells of the human proximal tubule (HK2), to prove the utility of this method and to validate the biological effect of Nps-AEA/PCL. They obtained particles from 100 to 900 nm of diameter with a predominance of 200-400 nm. Their zeta potential was -20 ± 1.86 mV. They demonstrated the stable encapsulation of AEA in Nps-AEA/PCL, as well as its dose-dependent capacity to induce the expression of iNOS and NO levels and to decrease the Na+/K+ ATPase activity in HK2 cells. Obtaining Nps-AEA/PCL by electrospraying would represent a promising methodology for a novel AEA pharmaceutical formulation development with optimal physicochemical properties, physical stability and biological activity on HK2 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virna M Martín Giménez
- Instituto de Investigaciones en Ciencias Químicas, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Tecnológicas, Universidad Católica de Cuyo, Av. Ignacio de la Roza 1516 (o), 5400, San Juan, Argentina
| | - Marcos G Russo
- Departamento de Química, Facultad de Química, Bioquímica y Farmacia, Universidad Nacional de San Luis, Almirante Brown 1455, D5700HGC, San Luis, Argentina
| | - Griselda E Narda
- Departamento de Química, Facultad de Química, Bioquímica y Farmacia, Universidad Nacional de San Luis, Almirante Brown 1455, D5700HGC, San Luis, Argentina
| | - Lucía B Fuentes
- Facultad de Química, Bioquímica y Farmacia, Universidad Nacional de San Luis, Chacabuco 917, D5700HOJ, San Luis, Argentina
| | - Luciana Mazzei
- Laboratorio de Farmacología Experimental Básica y Traslacional. Área de Farmacología, Departamento de Patología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, Av. Libertador 80 - Parque General San Martín, Centro Universitario, M5500 Mendoza, Argentina
| | - Carlos Gamarra-Luques
- Instituto de Medicina y Biología Experimental de Cuyo, Consejo Nacional de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica (IMBECU-CONICET), Av. Ruiz Leal s/n - Parque Gral. San Martín, M5500 Mendoza, Argentina
| | - Diego E Kassuha
- Instituto de Investigaciones en Ciencias Químicas, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Tecnológicas, Universidad Católica de Cuyo, Av. Ignacio de la Roza 1516 (o), 5400, San Juan, Argentina
| | - Walter Manucha
- Laboratorio de Farmacología Experimental Básica y Traslacional. Área de Farmacología, Departamento de Patología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, Av. Libertador 80 - Parque General San Martín, Centro Universitario, M5500 Mendoza, Argentina.
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Martín Giménez VM, Díaz-Rodríguez P, Sanz RL, Vivero-Lopez M, Concheiro A, Diez E, Prado N, Enrique Kassuha D, Alvarez-Lorenzo C, Manucha W. Anandamide-nanoformulation obtained by electrospraying for cardiovascular therapy. Int J Pharm 2019; 566:1-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2019.05.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Revised: 05/16/2019] [Accepted: 05/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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Aparicio-Blanco J, Sebastián V, Benoit JP, Torres-Suárez AI. Lipid nanocapsules decorated and loaded with cannabidiol as targeted prolonged release carriers for glioma therapy: In vitro screening of critical parameters. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2019; 134:126-137. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2018.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2018] [Revised: 11/17/2018] [Accepted: 11/21/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Di Marzo V. New approaches and challenges to targeting the endocannabinoid system. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2018; 17:623-639. [DOI: 10.1038/nrd.2018.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 256] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Seillier A, Giuffrida A. The cannabinoid transporter inhibitor OMDM-2 reduces social interaction: Further evidence for transporter-mediated endocannabinoid release. Neuropharmacology 2018; 130:1-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.11.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2017] [Revised: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/17/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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Deutsch DG. A Personal Retrospective: Elevating Anandamide (AEA) by Targeting Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolase (FAAH) and the Fatty Acid Binding Proteins (FABPs). Front Pharmacol 2016; 7:370. [PMID: 27790143 PMCID: PMC5062061 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2016.00370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2016] [Accepted: 09/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This perspective was adapted from a Career Achievement Award talk given at the International Cannabinoid Research Society Symposium in Bukovina, Poland on June 27, 2016. As a biochemist working in the neurosciences, I was always fascinated with neurotransmitter inactivation. In 1993 we identified an enzyme activity that breaks down anandamide. We called the enzyme anandamide amidase, now called FAAH. We and other laboratories developed FAAH inhibitors that were useful reagents that also proved to have beneficial physiological effects and until recently, new generations of inhibitors were in clinical trials. Nearly all neurotransmitters are water soluble and as such, require a transmembrane protein transporter to pass through the lipid membrane for inactivation inside the cell. However, using model systems, we and others have shown that this is unnecessary for anandamide, an uncharged hydrophobic molecule that readily diffuses across the cellular membrane. Interestingly, its uptake is driven by the concentration gradient resulting from its breakdown mainly by FAAH localized in the endoplasmic reticulum. We identified the FABPs as intracellular carriers that "solubilize" anandamide, transporting anandamide to FAAH. Compounds that bind to FABPs block AEA breakdown, raising its level. The cannabinoids (THC and CBD) also were discovered to bind FABPs and this may be one of the mechanisms by which CBD works in childhood epilepsy, raising anandamide levels. Targeting FABPs may be advantageous since they have some tissue specificity and do not require reactive serine hydrolase inhibitors, as does FAAH, with potential for off-target reactions. At the International Cannabis Research Society Symposium in 1992, Raphe Mechoulam revealed that his laboratory isolated an endogenous lipid molecule that binds to the CB1 receptor (cannabinoid receptor type 1) and this became the milestone paper published in December of that year describing anandamide (AEA, Devane et al., 1992). As to be expected, this discovery raised the issues of AEA's synthesis and breakdown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dale G Deutsch
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Stony Brook University Stony Brook, NY, USA
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Ligresti A, De Petrocellis L, Di Marzo V. From Phytocannabinoids to Cannabinoid Receptors and Endocannabinoids: Pleiotropic Physiological and Pathological Roles Through Complex Pharmacology. Physiol Rev 2016; 96:1593-659. [DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00002.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 253] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Apart from having been used and misused for at least four millennia for, among others, recreational and medicinal purposes, the cannabis plant and its most peculiar chemical components, the plant cannabinoids (phytocannabinoids), have the merit to have led humanity to discover one of the most intriguing and pleiotropic endogenous signaling systems, the endocannabinoid system (ECS). This review article aims to describe and critically discuss, in the most comprehensive possible manner, the multifaceted aspects of 1) the pharmacology and potential impact on mammalian physiology of all major phytocannabinoids, and not only of the most famous one Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, and 2) the adaptive pro-homeostatic physiological, or maladaptive pathological, roles of the ECS in mammalian cells, tissues, and organs. In doing so, we have respected the chronological order of the milestones of the millennial route from medicinal/recreational cannabis to the ECS and beyond, as it is now clear that some of the early steps in this long path, which were originally neglected, are becoming important again. The emerging picture is rather complex, but still supports the belief that more important discoveries on human physiology, and new therapies, might come in the future from new knowledge in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Ligresti
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Comprensorio Olivetti, Pozzuoli, Italy
| | - Luciano De Petrocellis
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Comprensorio Olivetti, Pozzuoli, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Di Marzo
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Comprensorio Olivetti, Pozzuoli, Italy
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Abstract
The transient receptor potential vanilloid-1 ion channel (TRPV1) is a non-selective ligand-gated cation channel. It is an integrator of a wide variety of exogenous and endogenous physical and chemical stimuli, including capsaicin, noxious heat (>42 °C), and protons (pH < 5.2). TRPV1 is expressed predominantly in primary sensory neurons involved in pain sensation, but also in other neuronal cell types, in the plasma membrane of different non-neuronal cells such as immune cells, keratinocytes, smooth muscle cells, and in the urothelium. Some of these cell types are involved in inflammation. When activated, TRPV1 leads to the gating of cations, including Ca(2+), thus generating changes in intracellular Ca(2+) concentration. Calcium ions play fundamental roles in many cellular processes, virtually in all cells. The use of Ca(2+) fluorescent indicators is a tool for monitoring intracellular Ca(2+) concentration.In this chapter, we describe a method for recording and monitoring Ca(2+) signals through the single wavelength fluorescent indicator Fluo-4 acetoxymethyl (AM), and the ratiometric fluorescent indicator Fura-2 AM in HEK-293 cells transfected with TRPV1 and other TRP channels. TRPV1 pharmacological modulation may potentially represent a strategy for the control of pain and inflammatory conditions in a variety of diseases and injury states.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Luciano De Petrocellis
- Istituto di Chimica Biomolecolare, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Pozzuoli, Italy.
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Nicolussi S, Chicca A, Rau M, Rihs S, Soeberdt M, Abels C, Gertsch J. Correlating FAAH and anandamide cellular uptake inhibition using N-alkylcarbamate inhibitors: From ultrapotent to hyperpotent. Biochem Pharmacol 2014; 92:669-89. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2014.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2014] [Revised: 09/24/2014] [Accepted: 09/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Hofmann NA, Barth S, Waldeck-Weiermair M, Klec C, Strunk D, Malli R, Graier WF. TRPV1 mediates cellular uptake of anandamide and thus promotes endothelial cell proliferation and network-formation. Biol Open 2014; 3:1164-72. [PMID: 25395667 PMCID: PMC4265754 DOI: 10.1242/bio.20149571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Anandamide (N-arachidonyl ethanolamide, AEA) is an endogenous cannabinoid that is involved in various pathological conditions, including cardiovascular diseases and tumor-angiogenesis. Herein, we tested the involvement of classical cannabinoid receptors (CBRs) and the Ca(2+)-channel transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) on cellular AEA uptake and its effect on endothelial cell proliferation and network-formation. Uptake of the fluorescence-labeled anandamide (SKM4-45-1) was monitored in human endothelial colony-forming cells (ECFCs) and a human endothelial-vein cell line (EA.hy926). Involvement of the receptors during AEA translocation was determined by selective pharmacological inhibition (AM251, SR144528, CID16020046, SB366791) and molecular interference by TRPV1-selective siRNA-mediated knock-down and TRPV1 overexpression. We show that exclusively TRPV1 contributes essentially to AEA transport into endothelial cells in a Ca(2+)-independent manner. This TRPV1 function is a prerequisite for AEA-induced endothelial cell proliferation and network-formation. Our findings point to a so far unknown moonlighting function of TRPV1 as Ca(2+)-independent contributor/regulator of AEA uptake. We propose TRPV1 as representing a promising target for development of pharmacological therapies against AEA-triggered endothelial cell functions, including their stimulatory effect on tumor-angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole A Hofmann
- Institute for Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Medical University of Graz, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Sonja Barth
- Institute for Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Medical University of Graz, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Markus Waldeck-Weiermair
- Institute for Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Medical University of Graz, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Christiane Klec
- Institute for Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Medical University of Graz, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Dirk Strunk
- Experimental and Clinical Cell Therapy Institute, Paracelsus Medical University, A-5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Roland Malli
- Institute for Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Medical University of Graz, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Wolfgang F Graier
- Institute for Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Medical University of Graz, A-8010 Graz, Austria
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Nicolussi S, Viveros-Paredes JM, Gachet MS, Rau M, Flores-Soto ME, Blunder M, Gertsch J. Guineensine is a novel inhibitor of endocannabinoid uptake showing cannabimimetic behavioral effects in BALB/c mice. Pharmacol Res 2014; 80:52-65. [DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2013.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2013] [Revised: 12/04/2013] [Accepted: 12/31/2013] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Ortar G, Morera E, De Petrocellis L, Ligresti A, Schiano Moriello A, Morera L, Nalli M, Ragno R, Pirolli A, Di Marzo V. Biaryl tetrazolyl ureas as inhibitors of endocannabinoid metabolism: Modulation at the N-portion and distal phenyl ring. Eur J Med Chem 2013; 63:118-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2013.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2012] [Revised: 12/21/2012] [Accepted: 02/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Fowler CJ. Transport of endocannabinoids across the plasma membrane and within the cell. FEBS J 2013; 280:1895-904. [PMID: 23441874 DOI: 10.1111/febs.12212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2012] [Revised: 01/08/2013] [Accepted: 02/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Endocannabinoids are readily accumulated from the extracellular space by cells. Although their uptake properties have the appearance of a process of facilitated diffusion, it is by no means clear as to whether there is a plasma membrane transporter dedicated to this task. Intracellular carrier proteins that shuttle the endocannabinoid anandamide from the plasma membrane to its intracellular targets such as the metabolic enzyme, fatty acid amide hydrolase, have been identified. These include proteins with other primary functions, such as fatty-acid-binding proteins and heat shock protein 70, and possibly a fatty acid amide hydrolase-like anandamide transporter protein. Thus, anandamide uptake can be adequately described as a diffusion process across the plasma membrane followed by intracellular carrier-mediated transport to effector molecules, catabolic enzymes and sequestration sites, although it is recognized that different cells are likely to utilize different mechanisms of endocannabinoid transport depending upon the utility of the endocannabinoid for the cell in question.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Fowler
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden.
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Identification of a novel arylpiperazine scaffold for fatty acid amide hydrolase inhibition with improved drug disposition properties. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2013; 23:492-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2012.11.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2012] [Revised: 11/07/2012] [Accepted: 11/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Chicca A, Marazzi J, Nicolussi S, Gertsch J. Evidence for bidirectional endocannabinoid transport across cell membranes. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:34660-82. [PMID: 22879589 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.373241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite extensive research on the trafficking of anandamide (AEA) across cell membranes, little is known about the membrane transport of other endocannabinoids, such as 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG). Previous studies have provided data both in favor and against a cell membrane carrier-mediated transport of endocannabinoids, using different methodological approaches. Because AEA and 2-AG undergo rapid and almost complete intracellular hydrolysis, we employed a combination of radioligand assays and absolute quantification of cellular and extracellular endocannabinoid levels. In human U937 leukemia cells, 100 nm AEA and 1 μm 2-AG were taken up through a fast and saturable process, reaching a plateau after 5 min. Employing differential pharmacological blockage of endocannabinoid uptake, breakdown, and interaction with intracellular binding proteins, we show that eicosanoid endocannabinoids harboring an arachidonoyl chain compete for a common membrane target that regulates their transport, whereas other N-acylethanolamines did not interfere with AEA and 2-AG uptake. By combining fatty acid amide hydrolase or monoacyl glycerol lipase inhibitors with hydrolase-inactive concentrations of the AEA transport inhibitors UCM707 (1 μm) and OMDM-2 (5 μm), a functional synergism on cellular AEA and 2-AG uptake was observed. Intriguingly, structurally unrelated AEA uptake inhibitors also blocked the cellular release of AEA and 2-AG. We show, for the first time, that UCM707 and OMDM-2 inhibit the bidirectional movement of AEA and 2-AG across cell membranes. Our findings suggest that a putative endocannabinoid cell membrane transporter controls the cellular AEA and 2-AG trafficking and metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Chicca
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, National Center of Competence in Research TransCure, University of Bern, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland
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Piscitelli F, Di Marzo V. "Redundancy" of endocannabinoid inactivation: new challenges and opportunities for pain control. ACS Chem Neurosci 2012; 3:356-63. [PMID: 22860203 DOI: 10.1021/cn300015x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2012] [Accepted: 02/27/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Redundancy of metabolic pathways and molecular targets is a typical feature of all lipid mediators, and endocannabinoids, which were originally defined as endogenous agonists at cannabinoid CB(1) and CB(2) receptors, are no exception. In particular, the two most studied endocannabinoids, anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol, are inactivated through alternative biochemical routes, including hydrolysis and oxidation, and more than one enzyme might be used even for the same type of inactivating reaction. These enzymes also recognize as substrates other concurrent lipid mediators, whereas, in turn, endocannabinoids might interact with noncannabinoid receptors with subcellular distribution and ultimate biological actions either similar to or completely different from those of cannabinoid receptors. Even splicing variants of endocannabinoid hydrolyzing enzymes, such as FAAH-1, might play distinct roles in endocannabinoid inactivation. Finally, the products of endocannabinoid catabolism may have their own targets, with biological roles different from those of cannabinoid receptors. These peculiarities of endocannabinoid signaling have complicated the use of inhibitors of its inactivation mechanisms as a safer and more efficacious alternative to the direct targeting of cannabinoid receptors for the treatment of several pathological conditions, including pain. However, new strategies, including the rediscovery of "dirty drugs", and the use of certain natural products (including non-THC cannabis constituents), are emerging that might allow us to make a virtue of necessity and exploit endocannabinoid redundancy to develop new analgesics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiana Piscitelli
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Pozzuoli (NA), Italy
| | - Vincenzo Di Marzo
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Pozzuoli (NA), Italy
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Fowler CJ. Anandamide uptake explained? Trends Pharmacol Sci 2012; 33:181-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2012.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2011] [Revised: 01/03/2012] [Accepted: 01/04/2012] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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De Petrocellis L, Ligresti A, Moriello AS, Allarà M, Bisogno T, Petrosino S, Stott CG, Di Marzo V. Effects of cannabinoids and cannabinoid-enriched Cannabis extracts on TRP channels and endocannabinoid metabolic enzymes. Br J Pharmacol 2012; 163:1479-94. [PMID: 21175579 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.01166.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 610] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Cannabidiol (CBD) and Δ(9) -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) interact with transient receptor potential (TRP) channels and enzymes of the endocannabinoid system. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH The effects of 11 pure cannabinoids and botanical extracts [botanical drug substance (BDS)] from Cannabis varieties selected to contain a more abundant cannabinoid, on TRPV1, TRPV2, TRPM8, TRPA1, human recombinant diacylglycerol lipase α (DAGLα), rat brain fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), COS cell monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), human recombinant N-acylethanolamine acid amide hydrolase (NAAA) and anandamide cellular uptake (ACU) by RBL-2H3 cells, were studied using fluorescence-based calcium assays in transfected cells and radiolabelled substrate-based enzymatic assays. Cannabinol (CBN), cannabichromene (CBC), the acids (CBDA, CBGA, THCA) and propyl homologues (CBDV, CBGV, THCV) of CBD, cannabigerol (CBG) and THC, and tetrahydrocannabivarin acid (THCVA) were also tested. KEY RESULTS CBD, CBG, CBGV and THCV stimulated and desensitized human TRPV1. CBC, CBD and CBN were potent rat TRPA1 agonists and desensitizers, but THCV-BDS was the most potent compound at this target. CBG-BDS and THCV-BDS were the most potent rat TRPM8 antagonists. All non-acid cannabinoids, except CBC and CBN, potently activated and desensitized rat TRPV2. CBDV and all the acids inhibited DAGLα. Some BDS, but not the pure compounds, inhibited MAGL. CBD was the only compound to inhibit FAAH, whereas the BDS of CBC > CBG > CBGV inhibited NAAA. CBC = CBG > CBD inhibited ACU, as did the BDS of THCVA, CBGV, CBDA and THCA, but the latter extracts were more potent inhibitors. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS These results are relevant to the analgesic, anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer effects of cannabinoids and Cannabis extracts.
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De Petrocellis L, Ligresti A, Moriello AS, Allarà M, Bisogno T, Petrosino S, Stott CG, Di Marzo V. Effects of cannabinoids and cannabinoid-enriched Cannabis extracts on TRP channels and endocannabinoid metabolic enzymes. Br J Pharmacol 2011. [PMID: 21175579 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.0166.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Cannabidiol (CBD) and Δ(9) -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) interact with transient receptor potential (TRP) channels and enzymes of the endocannabinoid system. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH The effects of 11 pure cannabinoids and botanical extracts [botanical drug substance (BDS)] from Cannabis varieties selected to contain a more abundant cannabinoid, on TRPV1, TRPV2, TRPM8, TRPA1, human recombinant diacylglycerol lipase α (DAGLα), rat brain fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), COS cell monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), human recombinant N-acylethanolamine acid amide hydrolase (NAAA) and anandamide cellular uptake (ACU) by RBL-2H3 cells, were studied using fluorescence-based calcium assays in transfected cells and radiolabelled substrate-based enzymatic assays. Cannabinol (CBN), cannabichromene (CBC), the acids (CBDA, CBGA, THCA) and propyl homologues (CBDV, CBGV, THCV) of CBD, cannabigerol (CBG) and THC, and tetrahydrocannabivarin acid (THCVA) were also tested. KEY RESULTS CBD, CBG, CBGV and THCV stimulated and desensitized human TRPV1. CBC, CBD and CBN were potent rat TRPA1 agonists and desensitizers, but THCV-BDS was the most potent compound at this target. CBG-BDS and THCV-BDS were the most potent rat TRPM8 antagonists. All non-acid cannabinoids, except CBC and CBN, potently activated and desensitized rat TRPV2. CBDV and all the acids inhibited DAGLα. Some BDS, but not the pure compounds, inhibited MAGL. CBD was the only compound to inhibit FAAH, whereas the BDS of CBC > CBG > CBGV inhibited NAAA. CBC = CBG > CBD inhibited ACU, as did the BDS of THCVA, CBGV, CBDA and THCA, but the latter extracts were more potent inhibitors. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS These results are relevant to the analgesic, anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer effects of cannabinoids and Cannabis extracts.
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Seely KA, Prather PL, James LP, Moran JH. Marijuana-based drugs: innovative therapeutics or designer drugs of abuse? Mol Interv 2011; 11:36-51. [PMID: 21441120 DOI: 10.1124/mi.11.1.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The principal psychoactive component of marijuana, Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), activates CB1 cannabinoid receptors (CB1Rs). Unfortunately, pharmacological research into the design of effective THC analogs has been hampered by psychiatric side effects. THC-based drug design of a less academic nature, however, has led to the marketing of "synthetic marijuana," labeled as K2 or "Spice," among other terms, which elicits psychotropic actions via CB1R activation. Because of structural dissimilarity to THC, the active ingredients of K2/Spice preparations are widely unregulated. The K2/Spice "phenomenon" provides a context for considering whether marijuana-based drugs will truly provide innovative therapeutics or merely perpetuate drug abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn A Seely
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA
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Aberturas MR, Hernán Pérez de la Ossa D, Gil ME, Ligresti A, Ligresti L, De Petrocellis L, Torres AI, Di Marzo V, Molpeceres J. Anandamide-loaded nanoparticles: preparation and characterization. J Microencapsul 2011; 28:200-10. [PMID: 21425945 DOI: 10.3109/02652048.2010.546436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Preparation and characterization of anandamide (N-arachidonoyl-ethanolamine, AEA) loaded polycaprolactone nanoparticles (PCL NP) as a research tool to clarify the presence of an AEA transporter in cell membranes and to avoid AEA plastic adsorption and instability. MATERIALS AND METHODS High performance liquid chromatography and light scattering were used to determine encapsulation efficiency, particle size, drug release, permeability and stability. RESULTS A high encapsulation efficiency 96.05 ± 1.77% and a particle size of 83.52 ± 21.38 nm were obtained. Nearly 40% of AEA remained in the NP after a 99.9% dilution and only 50% was released after 24 h at 37 °C with a 99% dilution. PCL NP prevented the adsorption of the drug to polypropylene or polystyrene, but not to acrylic multiwell plates. Drug permeability through artificial membranes was low (10⁻⁷ to 10⁻⁸ cm/s) and was affected by the presence of NP. NP increased AEA stability in suspension (drug half-life 431 h vs. 12 h) and freeze-dried with 5% sucrose. CONCLUSION This article presents the first study where stable AEA-loaded NP with high encapsulation efficiencies have been obtained.
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Affiliation(s)
- M R Aberturas
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
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Abstract
Starting from an historical overview of lasting Cannabis use over the centuries, we will focus on a description of the cannabinergic system, with a comprehensive analysis of chemical and pharmacological properties of endogenous and synthetic cannabimimetic analogues. The metabolic pathways and the signal transduction mechanisms, activated by cannabinoid receptors stimulation, will also be discussed. In particular, we will point out the action of cannabinoids and endocannabinoids on the different neuronal networks involved in reproductive axis, and locally, on male and female reproductive tracts, by emphasizing the pivotal role played by this system in the control of fertility.
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Oddi S, Fezza F, Catanzaro G, De Simone C, Pucci M, Piomelli D, Finazzi-Agrò A, Maccarrone M. Pitfalls and solutions in assaying anandamide transport in cells. J Lipid Res 2010; 51:2435-44. [PMID: 20447929 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.d004176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Nonspecific binding of anandamide to plastic exhibits many features that could be mistaken as biological processes, thereby representing an important source of conflicting data on the uptake and release of this lipophilic substance. Herein, we propose an improved method to assay anandamide transport, by using glass slides (i.e., coverslips) as physical support to grow cells. Although the results obtained using plastic do not differ significantly from those obtained using glass, the new procedure has the advantage of being faster, simpler, and more accurate. In fact, the lack of aspecific adsorption of anandamide to the glass surface yields a lower background and a higher precision and accuracy in determining transport kinetics, especially for the export process. Remarkably, the kinetic parameters of anandamide uptake obtained with the old and the new procedures may be similar or different depending on the cell type, thus demonstrating the complexity of the interference of plastic on the transport process. In addition, the novel procedure is particularly suitable for visualization and measurement of anandamide transport in intact cells by using a biotinylated derivative in confocal fluorescence microscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Oddi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Teramo, 64100 Teramo, Italy
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