The stromal processing peptidase of chloroplasts is essential in Arabidopsis, with knockout mutations causing embryo arrest after the 16-cell stage

Arabidopsis TIC236 contributes to proplastid development and chloroplast biogenesis during embryogenesis

Plastids are essential, semi-autonomous organelles in plants that carry out a multitude of functions during development. Plastids existing in different subtypes are derived from proplastids progenitors and interconvert in response to environmental and growth cues. Most efforts focus on the differentiation from proplastid to other forms. However, the studies of proplastid development are insufficient and whether proplastid biogenesis affects plant growth is yet to be determined. Arabidopsis TIC236, a translocon component at the inner membrane of the chloroplast envelope, is critical for importing chloroplast-targeted preproteins and chloroplast division. In this study, we uncovered the fundamental influence of proplastid biogenesis on embryo development by exploring the function of TIC236 during embryogenesis. Widespread and strong expression of TIC236 was observed in leaves and embryos. The null mutant tic236 had an embryo-lethal phenotype, with cell division in the mutant embryos delayed starting at the octant stage and arrested at the globular stage. Transmission electron microscopy revealed enlarged proplastids with an aberrant inner structure at the dermatogen and globular stages that ultimately did not differentiate into chloroplasts. Additionally, the fluorescence signal distribution patterns of tic236 embryos carrying the pDR5rev::3xVENUS-N7, pPIN1::PIN1-GFP, pWOX5::GFP, and pSCR::H2B-YFP reporter systems were altered. Together, we provide genetic evidence supporting proplastid biogenesis plays a vital role in embryo development and TIC236 is identified as an indispensable player, ensuring normal proplastid development.

Plastid Molecular Chaperone HSP90C Interacts with the SecA1 Subunit of Sec Translocase for Thylakoid Protein Transport

The plastid stroma-localized chaperone HSP90C plays a crucial role in maintaining optimal proteostasis within chloroplasts and participates in protein translocation processes. While existing studies have revealed HSP90C's direct interaction with the Sec translocase-dependent client pre-protein PsbO1 and the SecY1 subunit of the thylakoid membrane-bound Sec1 translocase channel system, its direct involvement with the extrinsic homodimeric Sec translocase subunit, SecA1, remains elusive. Employing bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) assay and other in vitro analyses, we unraveled potential interactions between HSP90C and SecA1. Our investigation revealed dynamic interactions between HSP90C and SecA1 at the thylakoid membrane and stroma. The thylakoid membrane localization of this interaction was contingent upon active HSP90C ATPase activity, whereas their stromal interaction was associated with active SecA1 ATPase activity. Furthermore, we observed a direct interaction between these two proteins by analyzing their ATP hydrolysis activities, and their interaction likely impacts their respective functional cycles. Additionally, using PsbO1, a model Sec translocase client pre-protein, we studied the intricacies of HSP90C's possible involvement in pre-protein translocation via the Sec1 system in chloroplasts. The results suggest a complex nature of the HSP90C-SecA1 interaction, possibly mediated by the Sec client protein. Our studies shed light on the nuanced aspects of HSP90C's engagement in orchestrating pre-protein translocation, and we propose a potential collaborative role of HSP90C with SecA1 in actively facilitating pre-protein transport across the thylakoid membrane.

The journey of preproteins across the chloroplast membrane systems

The photosynthetic capacity of chloroplasts is vital for autotrophic growth in algae and plants. The origin of the chloroplast has been explained by the endosymbiotic theory that proposes the engulfment of a cyanobacterium by an ancestral eukaryotic cell followed by the transfer of many cyanobacterial genes to the host nucleus. As a result of the gene transfer, the now nuclear-encoded proteins acquired chloroplast targeting peptides (known as transit peptides; transit peptide) and are translated as preproteins in the cytosol. Transit peptides contain specific motifs and domains initially recognized by cytosolic factors followed by the chloroplast import components at the outer and inner envelope of the chloroplast membrane. Once the preprotein emerges on the stromal side of the chloroplast protein import machinery, the transit peptide is cleaved by stromal processing peptidase. In the case of thylakoid-localized proteins, cleavage of the transit peptides may expose a second targeting signal guiding the protein to the thylakoid lumen or allow insertion into the thylakoid membrane by internal sequence information. This review summarizes the common features of targeting sequences and describes their role in routing preproteins to and across the chloroplast envelope as well as the thylakoid membrane and lumen.

NPR1 Translocation from Chloroplast to Nucleus Activates Plant Tolerance to Salt Stress

Chloroplasts play crucial roles in biotic and abiotic stress responses, regulated by nuclear gene expression through changes in the cellular redox state. Despite lacking the N-terminal chloroplast transit peptide (cTP), nonexpressor of pathogenesis-related genes 1 (NPR1), a redox-sensitive transcriptional coactivator was consistently found in the tobacco chloroplasts. Under salt stress and after exogenous application of H₂O₂ or aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid, an ethylene precursor, transgenic tobacco plants expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged NPR1 (NPR1-GFP) showed significant accumulation of monomeric nuclear NPR1, irrespective of the presence of cTP. Immunoblotting and fluorescence image analyses indicated that NPR1-GFP, with and without cTP, had similar molecular weights, suggesting that the chloroplast-targeted NPR1-GFP is likely translocated from the chloroplasts to the nucleus after processing in the stroma. Translation in the chloroplast is essential for nuclear NPR1 accumulation and stress-related expression of nuclear genes. An overexpression of chloroplast-targeted NPR1 enhanced stress tolerance and photosynthetic capacity. In addition, compared to the wild-type lines, several genes encoding retrograde signaling-related proteins were severely impaired in the Arabidopsis npr1-1 mutant, but were enhanced in NPR1 overexpression (NPR1-Ox) transgenic tobacco line. Taken together, chloroplast NPR1 acts as a retrograding signal that enhances the adaptability of plants to adverse environments.

Chloroplast proteostasis: A story of birth, life, and death

Protein homeostasis (proteostasis) is a dynamic balance of protein synthesis and degradation. Because of the endosymbiotic origin of chloroplasts and the massive transfer of their genetic information to the nucleus of the host cell, many protein complexes in the chloroplasts are constituted from subunits encoded by both genomes. Hence, the proper function of chloroplasts relies on the coordinated expression of chloroplast- and nucleus-encoded genes. The biogenesis and maintenance of chloroplast proteostasis are dependent on synthesis of chloroplast-encoded proteins, import of nucleus-encoded chloroplast proteins from the cytosol, and clearance of damaged or otherwise undesired "old" proteins. This review focuses on the regulation of chloroplast proteostasis, its interaction with proteostasis of the cytosol, and its retrograde control over nuclear gene expression. We also discuss significant issues and perspectives for future studies and potential applications for improving the photosynthetic performance and stress tolerance of crops.

The CLP and PREP protease systems coordinate maturation and degradation of the chloroplast proteome in Arabidopsis thaliana

A network of peptidases governs proteostasis in plant chloroplasts and mitochondria. This study reveals strong genetic and functional interactions in Arabidopsis between the chloroplast stromal CLP chaperone-protease system and the PREP1,2 peptidases, which are dually localized to chloroplast stroma and the mitochondrial matrix. Higher order mutants defective in CLP or PREP proteins were generated and analyzed by quantitative proteomics and N-terminal proteomics (terminal amine isotopic labeling of substrates (TAILS)). Strong synergistic interactions were observed between the CLP protease system (clpr1-2, clpr2-1, clpc1-1, clpt1, clpt2) and both PREP homologs (prep1, prep2) resulting in embryo lethality or growth and developmental phenotypes. Synergistic interactions were observed even when only one of the PREP proteins was lacking, suggesting that PREP1 and PREP2 have divergent substrates. Proteome phenotypes were driven by the loss of CLP protease capacity, with little impact from the PREP peptidases. Chloroplast N-terminal proteomes showed that many nuclear encoded chloroplast proteins have alternatively processed N-termini in prep1prep2, clpt1clpt2 and prep1prep2clpt1clpt2. Loss of chloroplast protease capacity interferes with stromal processing peptidase (SPP) activity due to folding stress and low levels of accumulated cleaved cTP fragments. PREP1,2 proteolysis of cleaved cTPs is complemented by unknown proteases. A model for CLP and PREP activity within a hierarchical chloroplast proteolysis network is proposed.

Identification of miRNAs and Target Genes at Key Stages of Sexual Differentiation in Androdioecious Osmanthus fragrans

Androdioecy is the crucial transition state in the evolutionary direction of hermaphroditism to dioecy, however, the molecular mechanisms underlying the formation of this sex system remain unclear. While popular in China for its ornamental and cultural value, Osmanthus fragrans has an extremely rare androdioecy breeding system, meaning that there are both male and hermaphroditic plants in a population. To unravel the mechanisms underlying the formation of androdioecy, we performed small RNA sequencing studies on male and hermaphroditic O. fragrans. A total of 334 miRNAs were identified, of which 59 were differentially expressed. Functional categorization revealed that the target genes of differentially expressed miRNAs were mainly involved in the biological processes of reproductive development and the hormone signal transduction pathway. We speculated that the miRNA160, miRNA167, miRNA393 and miRNA396 families may influence the sex differentiation in O. fragrans. Overall, our study is the first exploration of miRNAs in the growth and development process of O. fragrans, and is also the first study of androdioecious plants from the miRNA sequencing perspective. The analysis of miRNAs and target genes that may be involved in the sex differentiation process lay a foundation for the ultimate discovery of the androdioecious molecular mechanism in O. fragrans.

Plastid ribosome protein L5 is essential for post-globular embryo development in Arabidopsis thaliana

Plastid ribosomal proteins (PRPs) can play essential roles in plastid ribosome functioning that affect plant function and development. However, the roles of many PRPs remain unknown, including elucidation of which PRPs are essential or display redundancy. Here, we report that the nuclear-encoded PLASTID RIBOSOMAL PROTEIN L5 (PRPL5) is essential for early embryo development in A. thaliana, as homozygous loss-of-function mutations in the PRPL5 gene impairs chloroplast development and leads to embryo failure to develop past the globular stage. We confirmed the prpl5 embryo-lethal phenotype by generating a mutant CRISPR/Cas9 line and by genetic complementation. As PRPL5 underwent transfer to the nuclear genome early in the evolution of Embryophyta, PRPL5 can be expected to have acquired a chloroplast transit peptide. We identify and validate the presence of an N-terminal chloroplast transit peptide, but unexpectedly also confirm the presence of a conserved and functional Nuclear Localization Signal on the protein C-terminal end. This study highlights the fundamental role of the plastid translation machinery during the early stages of embryo development in plants and raises the possibility of additional roles of plastid ribosomal proteins in the nucleus.

Broad-range metalloprotease profiling in plants uncovers immunity provided by defence-related metalloenzyme

Plants encode > 100 metalloproteases representing > 19 different protein families. Tools to study this large and diverse class of proteases have not yet been introduced into plant research. We describe the use of hydroxamate-based photoaffinity probes to explore plant proteomes for metalloproteases. We detected labelling of 23 metalloproteases in leaf extracts of the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana that belong to nine different metalloprotease families and localize to different subcellular compartments. The probes identified several chloroplastic FtsH proteases, vacuolar aspartyl aminopeptidase DAP1, peroxisomal metalloprotease PMX16, extracellular matrix metalloproteases and many cytosolic metalloproteases. We also identified nonproteolytic metallohydrolases involved in the release of auxin and in the urea cycle. Studies on tobacco plants (Nicotiana benthamiana) infected with the bacterial plant pathogen Pseudomonas syringae uncovered the induced labelling of PRp27, a secreted protein with implicated metalloprotease activity. PRp27 overexpression increases resistance, and PRp27 mutants lacking metal binding site are no longer labelled, but still show increased immunity. Collectively, these studies reveal the power of broad-range metalloprotease profiling in plants using hydroxamate-based probes.

The evolutionary history of peptidases involved in the processing of Organelle-Targeting Peptides

Most of the proteins present in mitochondria and chloroplasts, the organelles acquired via endosymbiotic events, are encoded in the nucleus and translated into the cytosol. Most of such nuclear-encoded proteins are specifically recognized via an N-terminal-encoded targeting peptide (TP) and imported into the organelles via a translocon machinery. Once imported, the TP is degraded by a succession of cleavage steps ensured by dedicated peptidases. Here, we retrace the evolution of the families of the mitochondrial processing peptidase (MPP), stromal processing peptidase (SPP), presequence protease (PreP), and organellar oligo-peptidase (OOP) that play a central role in TP processing and degradation across the tree of life. Their bacterial distributions are widespread but patchy, revealing unsurprisingly complex history of lateral transfers among bacteria. We provide evidence for the eukaryotic acquisition of MPP, OOP, and PreP by lateral gene transfers from bacteria at the time of the mitochondrial endosymbiosis. We show that the acquisition of SPP and of a second copy of OOP and PreP at the time of the chloroplast endosymbiosis was followed by a differential loss of one PreP paralog in photosynthetic eukaryotes. We identified some contrasting sequence conservations between bacterial and eukaryotic homologs that could reflect differences in the functional context of their peptidase activity. The close vicinity of the eukaryotic peptidases MPP and OOP to those of several bacterial pathogens, showing antimicrobial resistance, supports a scenario where such bacteria were instrumental in the establishment of the proteolytic pathway for TP degradation in organelles. The evidence for their role in the acquisition of PreP is weaker, and none is observed for SPP, although it cannot be excluded by the present study.

Proteomics, phylogenetics, and co-expression analyses indicate novel interactions in the plastid CLP chaperone-protease system

The chloroplast chaperone CLPC1 unfolds and delivers substrates to the stromal CLPPRT protease complex for degradation. We previously used an in vivo trapping approach to identify interactors with CLPC1 in Arabidopsis thaliana by expressing a STREPII-tagged copy of CLPC1 mutated in its Walker B domains (CLPC1-TRAP) followed by affinity purification and mass spectrometry. To create a larger pool of candidate substrates, adaptors, or regulators, we carried out a far more sensitive and comprehensive in vivo protein trapping analysis. We identified 59 highly enriched CLPC1 protein interactors, in particular proteins belonging to families of unknown functions (DUF760, DUF179, DUF3143, UVR-DUF151, HugZ/DUF2470), as well as the UVR domain proteins EXE1 and EXE2 implicated in singlet oxygen damage and signaling. Phylogenetic and functional domain analyses identified other members of these families that appear to localize (nearly) exclusively to plastids. In addition, several of these DUF proteins are of very low abundance as determined through the Arabidopsis PeptideAtlas http://www.peptideatlas.org/builds/arabidopsis/ showing that enrichment in the CLPC1-TRAP was extremely selective. Evolutionary rate covariation indicated that the HugZ/DUF2470 family coevolved with the plastid CLP machinery suggesting functional and/or physical interactions. Finally, mRNA-based coexpression networks showed that all 12 CLP protease subunits tightly coexpressed as a single cluster with deep connections to DUF760-3. Coexpression modules for other trapped proteins suggested specific functions in biological processes, e.g., UVR2 and UVR3 were associated with extraplastidic degradation, whereas DUF760-6 is likely involved in senescence. This study provides a strong foundation for discovery of substrate selection by the chloroplast CLP protease system.

Genes Modulating the Increase in Sexuality in the Facultative Diplosporous Grass Eragrostis curvula under Water Stress Conditions

Eragrostis curvula presents mainly facultative genotypes that reproduce by diplosporous apomixis, retaining a percentage of sexual pistils that increase under drought and other stressful situations, indicating that some regulators activated by stress could be affecting the apomixis/sexual switch. Water stress experiments were performed in order to associate the increase in sexual embryo sacs with the differential expression of genes in a facultative apomictic cultivar using cytoembryology and RNA sequencing. The percentage of sexual embryo sacs increased from 4 to 24% and 501 out of the 201,011 transcripts were differentially expressed (DE) between control and stressed plants. DE transcripts were compared with previous transcriptomes where apomictic and sexual genotypes were contrasted. The results point as candidates to transcripts related to methylation, ubiquitination, hormone and signal transduction pathways, transcription regulation and cell wall biosynthesis, some acting as a general response to stress and some that are specific to the reproductive mode. We suggest that a DNA glycosylase EcROS1-like could be demethylating, thus de-repressing a gene or genes involved in the sexuality pathways. Many of the other DE transcripts could be part of a complex mechanism that regulates apomixis and sexuality in this grass, the ones in the intersection between control/stress and apo/sex being the strongest candidates.

Arabidopsis Chloroplast protein for Growth and Fertility1 (CGF1) and CGF2 are essential for chloroplast development and female gametogenesis

BACKGROUND

Chloroplasts are essential organelles of plant cells for not only being the energy factory but also making plant cells adaptable to different environmental stimuli. The nuclear genome encodes most of the chloroplast proteins, among which a large percentage of membrane proteins have yet to be functionally characterized.

RESULTS

We report here functional characterization of two nuclear-encoded chloroplast proteins, Chloroplast protein for Growth and Fertility (CGF1) and CGF2. CGF1 and CGF2 are expressed in diverse tissues and developmental stages. Proteins they encode are associated with chloroplasts through a N-terminal chloroplast-targeting signal in green tissues but also located at plastids in roots and seeds. Mutants of CGF1 and CGF2 generated by CRISPR/Cas9 exhibited vegetative defects, including reduced leaf size, dwarfism, and abnormal cell death. CGF1 and CGF2 redundantly mediate female gametogenesis, likely by securing local energy supply. Indeed, mutations of both genes impaired chloroplast integrity whereas exogenous sucrose rescued the growth defects of the CGF double mutant.

CONCLUSION

This study reports that two nuclear-encoded chloroplast proteins, Chloroplast protein for Growth and Fertility (CGF1) and CGF2, play important roles in vegetative growth, in female gametogenesis, and in embryogenesis likely by mediating chloroplast integrity and development.

Protein import into chloroplasts and its regulation by the ubiquitin-proteasome system

Chloroplasts are photosynthetic plant organelles descended from a bacterial ancestor. The vast majority of chloroplast proteins are synthesized in the cytosol and then imported into the chloroplast post-translationally. Translocation complexes exist in the organelle's outer and inner envelope membranes (termed TOC and TIC, respectively) to facilitate protein import. These systems recognize chloroplast precursor proteins and mediate their import in an energy-dependent manner. However, many unanswered questions remain regarding mechanistic details of the import process and the participation and functions of individual components; for example, the cytosolic events that mediate protein delivery to chloroplasts, the composition of the TIC apparatus, and the nature of the protein import motor all require resolution. The flux of proteins through TOC and TIC varies greatly throughout development and in response to specific environmental cues. The import process is, therefore, tightly regulated, and it has emerged that the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) plays a key role in this regard, acting at several different steps in the process. The UPS is involved in: the selective degradation of transcription factors that co-ordinate the expression of chloroplast precursor proteins; the removal of unimported chloroplast precursor proteins in the cytosol; the inhibition of chloroplast biogenesis pre-germination; and the reconfiguration of the TOC apparatus in response to developmental and environmental signals in a process termed chloroplast-associated protein degradation. In this review, we highlight recent advances in our understanding of protein import into chloroplasts and how this process is regulated by the UPS.

N-Degron Pathways in Plastids

Protein amino (N) termini are major determinants of protein stability in the cytosol of eukaryotes and prokaryotes, conceptualized in the N-end rule pathway, lately referred to as N-degron pathways. Here we argue for the existence of N-degron pathways in plastids of apicomplexa, algae, and plants. The prokaryotic N-degron pathway depends on a caseinolytic protease (CLP) S recognin (adaptor) for the recognition and delivery of N-degron-bearing substrates to CLP chaperone-protease systems. Diversified CLP systems are found in chloroplasts and nonphotosynthetic plastids, including CLPS homologs that specifically interact with a subset of N-terminal residues and stromal proteins. Chloroplast N-terminome data show enrichment of classic stabilizing residues [Ala (A), Ser (S), Val (V), Thr (T)] and avoidance of charged and large hydrophobic residues. We outline experimental test strategies for plastid N-degron pathways.

Protein import into chloroplasts via the Tic40-dependent and -independent pathways depends on the amino acid composition of the transit peptide

Preprotein import into chloroplasts is mediated by the coordinated actions of translocons at the outer and inner envelopes of chloroplasts (Toc and Tic, respectively). The cleavable N-terminal transit peptide (TP) of preproteins plays an essential role in the import of preproteins into chloroplasts. The Tic40 protein, a component of the Tic complex, is believed to mediate the import of preproteins through the inner envelope. In this study, we aimed to obtain in vivo evidence supporting the role of Tic40 in preprotein import into chloroplasts. Contrary to previous findings, the import of various preproteins with wild-type TPs showed no difference between tic40 and wild-type protoplasts of Arabidopsis thaliana. However, the import of N-terminal mutants of the RbcS protein (RbcS-nt), in which basic amino acid residues (arginine and lysine) in the central region of the TP were substituted with neutral (alanine) or acidic (glutamic acid) amino acid residues, was dependent on Tic40. In addition, in tic40 protoplasts, the inner envelope protein Tic40 tagged with HA (hemagglutinin) showed more intermediate form present in the stroma. Based on these results, we propose that protein can be imported into chloroplast by either Tic40-independent or Tic40-dependent pathways depending on the types of TP.

Molecular Mechanism of the Specificity of Protein Import into Chloroplasts and Mitochondria in Plant Cells

Plants possess both types of endosymbiotic organelles, chloroplasts and mitochondria. Transit peptides and presequences function as signal sequences for specific import into chloroplasts and mitochondria, respectively. However, how these highly similar signal sequences confer the protein import specificity remains elusive. Here, we show that mitochondrial- or chloroplast-specific import involves two distinct steps, specificity determination and translocation across envelopes, which are mediated by the N-terminal regions and functionally interchangeable C-terminal regions, respectively, of transit peptides and presequences. A domain harboring multiple-arginine and hydrophobic sequence motifs in the N-terminal regions of presequences was identified as the mitochondrial specificity factor. The presence of this domain and the absence of arginine residues in the N-terminal regions of otherwise common targeting signals confers specificity of protein import into mitochondria and chloroplasts, respectively. AtToc159, a chloroplast import receptor, also contributes to determining chloroplast import specificity. We propose that common ancestral sequences were functionalized into mitochondrial- and chloroplast-specific signal sequences by the presence and absence, respectively, of multiple-arginine and hydrophobic sequence motifs in the N-terminal region.

Chlorophyll catabolism precedes changes in chloroplast structure and proteome during leaf senescence

The earliest visual changes of leaf senescence occur in the chloroplast as chlorophyll is degraded and photosynthesis declines. Yet, a comprehensive understanding of the sequence of catabolic events occurring in chloroplasts during natural leaf senescence is still missing. Here, we combined confocal and electron microscopy together with proteomics and biochemistry to follow structural and molecular changes during Arabidopsis leaf senescence. We observed that initiation of chlorophyll catabolism precedes other breakdown processes. Chloroplast size, stacking of thylakoids, and efficiency of PSII remain stable until late stages of senescence, whereas the number and size of plastoglobules increase. Unlike catabolic enzymes, whose level increase, the level of most proteins decreases during senescence, and chloroplast proteins are overrepresented among these. However, the rate of their disappearance is variable, mostly uncoordinated and independent of their inherent stability during earlier developmental stages. Unexpectedly, degradation of chlorophyll-binding proteins lags behind chlorophyll catabolism. Autophagy and vacuole proteins are retained at relatively high levels, highlighting the role of extra-plastidic degradation processes especially in late stages of senescence. The observation that chlorophyll catabolism precedes all other catabolic events may suggest that this process enables or signals further catabolic processes in chloroplasts.

Evolution and Design Principles of the Diverse Chloroplast Transit Peptides

Chloroplasts are present in organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. These organelles are thought to have originated from photosynthetic cyanobacteria through endosymbiosis. During endosymbiosis, most cyanobacterial genes were transferred to the host nucleus. Therefore, most chloroplast proteins became encoded in the nuclear genome and must return to the chloroplast after translation. The N-terminal cleavable transit peptide (TP) is necessary and sufficient for the import of nucleus-encoded interior chloroplast proteins. Over the past decade, extensive research on the TP has revealed many important characteristic features of TPs. These studies have also shed light on the question of how the many diverse TPs could have evolved to target specific proteins to the chloroplast. In this review, we summarize the characteristic features of TPs. We also highlight recent advances in our understanding of TP evolution and provide future perspectives about this important research area.

Sorting of SEC translocase SCY components to different membranes in chloroplasts

Membrane proteins that are imported into chloroplasts must be accurately routed in order to establish and maintain the highly differentiated membranes characteristic of these organelles. Little is known about the targeting information or pathways involved, especially in the case of proteins with multiple transmembrane domains. We have studied targeting of the SCY components of the two SEC translocases in chloroplasts. SCY1 and SCY2 share a similar, highly conserved structure with 10 transmembrane domains, but are targeted to different membranes: the thylakoids and inner envelope, respectively. We used protoplast transfections and a confocal microscopy imaging assay in combination with a domain-swapping approach to investigate sorting pathways and identify important targeting elements in these proteins. We show that the N-terminal region of SCY1 contains targeting determinants that allow SCY1 to be recruited to the signal-recognition particle pathway. In addition, substituting the N-terminal region of SCY1 for the N-terminal region of SCY2 causes SCY2 to be displaced out of the inner envelope. The region of SCY2 that contains transmembrane domains 3 and 4 is necessary for localization to the inner envelope and may serve as a membrane anchor, enhancing the integration of other transmembrane domains via either stop-transfer or post-import mechanisms.

Essentials of Proteolytic Machineries in Chloroplasts

Plastids are unique organelles that can alter their structure and function in response to environmental and developmental stimuli. Chloroplasts are one type of plastid and are the sites for various metabolic processes, including photosynthesis. For optimal photosynthetic activity, the chloroplast proteome must be properly shaped and maintained through regulated proteolysis and protein quality control mechanisms. Enzymatic functions and activities are conferred by protein maturation processes involving consecutive proteolytic reactions. Protein abundances are optimized by the balanced protein synthesis and degradation, which is depending on the metabolic status. Malfunctioning proteins are promptly degraded. Twenty chloroplast proteolytic machineries have been characterized to date. Specifically, processing peptidases and energy-driven processive proteases are the major players in chloroplast proteome biogenesis, remodeling, and maintenance. Recently identified putative proteases are potential regulators of photosynthetic functions. Here we provide an updated, comprehensive overview of chloroplast protein degradation machineries and discuss their importance for photosynthesis. Wherever possible, we also provide structural insights into chloroplast proteases that implement regulated proteolysis of substrate proteins/peptides.

Import of Soluble Proteins into Chloroplasts and Potential Regulatory Mechanisms

Chloroplasts originated from an endosymbiotic event in which a free-living cyanobacterium was engulfed by an ancestral eukaryotic host. During evolution the majority of the chloroplast genetic information was transferred to the host cell nucleus. As a consequence, proteins formerly encoded by the chloroplast genome are now translated in the cytosol and must be subsequently imported into the chloroplast. This process involves three steps: (i) cytosolic sorting procedures, (ii) binding to the designated receptor-equipped target organelle and (iii) the consecutive translocation process. During import, proteins have to overcome the two barriers of the chloroplast envelope, namely the outer envelope membrane (OEM) and the inner envelope membrane (IEM). In the majority of cases, this is facilitated by two distinct multiprotein complexes, located in the OEM and IEM, respectively, designated TOC and TIC. Plants are constantly exposed to fluctuating environmental conditions such as temperature and light and must therefore regulate protein composition within the chloroplast to ensure optimal functioning of elementary processes such as photosynthesis. In this review we will discuss the recent models of each individual import stage with regard to short-term strategies that plants might use to potentially acclimate to changes in their environmental conditions and preserve the chloroplast protein homeostasis.

Light Deprivation-Induced Inhibition of Chloroplast Biogenesis Does Not Arrest Embryo Morphogenesis But Strongly Reduces the Accumulation of Storage Reserves during Embryo Maturation in Arabidopsis

The chloroplast is one of the most important organelles found exclusively in plant and algal cells. Previous reports indicated that the chloroplast is involved in plant embryogenesis, but the role of the organelle during embryo morphogenesis and maturation is still a controversial question demanding further research. In the present study, siliques of Arabidopsis at the early globular stage were enwrapped using tinfoil, and light deprivation-induced inhibition of the chloroplast biogenesis were validated by stereomicroscope, laser scanning confocal microscope and transmission electron microscope. Besides, the effects of inhibited chloroplast differentiation on embryogenesis, especially on the reserve deposition were analyzed using periodic acid-Schiff reaction, Nile red labeling, and Coomassie brilliant blue staining. Our results indicated that tinfoil enwrapping strongly inhibited the formation of chloroplasts, which did not arrest embryo morphogenesis, but markedly influenced embryo maturation, mainly through reducing the accumulation of storage reserves, especially starch grains and oil. Our data provide a new insight into the roles of the chloroplast during embryogenesis.

Molecular Markers of Radiation Induced Attenuation in Intrahepatic Plasmodium falciparum Parasites

Experimental immunization with radiation attenuated sporozoites (RAS) and genetically attenuated sporozoites has proved to be a promising approach for malaria vaccine development. However, parasite biomarkers of growth attenuation and enhanced immune protection in response to radiation remain poorly understood. Here, we report on the effect of an attenuating dose of γ-irradiation (15 krad) on the Plasmodium falciparum sporozoite (PfSPZ) ultrastructure by electron microscopy, growth rate of liver stage P. falciparum in liver cell cultures, and genome-wide transcriptional profile of liver stage parasites by microarray. We find that γ-irradiation treated PfSPZ retained a normal cellular structure except that they were vacuous with a partially disrupted plasma membrane and inner membrane complex. A similar infection rate was observed by γ-irradiation-treated and untreated PfSPZ in human HCO-4 liver cells (0.47% versus 0.49%, respectively) on day 3 post-infection. In the microarray studies, cumulatively, 180 liver stage parasite genes were significantly transcriptionally altered on day 3 and/or 6 post-infection. Among the transcriptionally altered biomarkers, we identified a signature of seven candidate parasite genes that associated with functionally diverse pathways that may regulate radiation induced cell cycle arrest of the parasite within the hepatocyte. A repertoire of 14 genes associated with protein translation is transcriptionally overexpressed within the parasite by radiation. Additionally, 37 genes encode proteins expressed on the cell surface or exported into the host cell, 4 encode membrane associated transporters, and 10 encode proteins related to misfolding and stress-related protein processing. These results have significantly increased the repertoire of novel targets for 1) biomarkers of safety to define proper attenuation, 2) generating genetically attenuated parasite vaccine candidates, and 3) subunit candidate vaccines against liver stage malaria.

The Arabidopsis Chloroplast Stromal N-Terminome: Complexities of Amino-Terminal Protein Maturation and Stability

Protein amino (N) termini are prone to modifications and are major determinants of protein stability in bacteria, eukaryotes, and perhaps also in chloroplasts. Most chloroplast proteins undergo N-terminal maturation, but this is poorly understood due to insufficient experimental information. Consequently, N termini of mature chloroplast proteins cannot be accurately predicted. This motivated an extensive characterization of chloroplast protein N termini in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) using terminal amine isotopic labeling of substrates and mass spectrometry, generating nearly 14,000 tandem mass spectrometry spectra matching to protein N termini. Many nucleus-encoded plastid proteins accumulated with two or three different N termini; we evaluated the significance of these different proteoforms. Alanine, valine, threonine (often in N-α-acetylated form), and serine were by far the most observed N-terminal residues, even after normalization for their frequency in the plastid proteome, while other residues were absent or highly underrepresented. Plastid-encoded proteins showed a comparable distribution of N-terminal residues, but with a higher frequency of methionine. Infrequent residues (e.g. isoleucine, arginine, cysteine, proline, aspartate, and glutamate) were observed for several abundant proteins (e.g. heat shock proteins 70 and 90, Rubisco large subunit, and ferredoxin-glutamate synthase), likely reflecting functional regulation through their N termini. In contrast, the thylakoid lumenal proteome showed a wide diversity of N-terminal residues, including those typically associated with instability (aspartate, glutamate, leucine, and phenylalanine). We propose that, after cleavage of the chloroplast transit peptide by stromal processing peptidase, additional processing by unidentified peptidases occurs to avoid unstable or otherwise unfavorable N-terminal residues. The possibility of a chloroplast N-end rule is discussed.

The similarity between N-terminal targeting signals for protein import into different organelles and its evolutionary relevance

The proper distribution of proteins between the cytosol and various membrane-bound compartments is crucial for the functionality of eukaryotic cells. This requires the cooperation between protein transport machineries that translocate diverse proteins from the cytosol into these compartments and targeting signal(s) encoded within the primary sequence of these proteins that define their cellular destination. The mechanisms exerting protein translocation differ remarkably between the compartments, but the predominant targeting signals for mitochondria, chloroplasts and the ER share the N-terminal position, an α-helical structural element and the removal from the core protein by intraorganellar cleavage. Interestingly, similar properties have been described for the peroxisomal targeting signal type 2 mediating the import of a fraction of soluble peroxisomal proteins, whereas other peroxisomal matrix proteins encode the type 1 targeting signal residing at the extreme C-terminus. The structural similarity of N-terminal targeting signals poses a challenge to the specificity of protein transport, but allows the generation of ambiguous targeting signals that mediate dual targeting of proteins into different compartments. Dual targeting might represent an advantage for adaptation processes that involve a redistribution of proteins, because it circumvents the hierarchy of targeting signals. Thus, the co-existence of two equally functional import pathways into peroxisomes might reflect a balance between evolutionary constant and flexible transport routes.

Plastid intramembrane proteolysis

Progress in the field of regulated intramembrane proteolysis (RIP) in recent years has not surpassed plant biology. Nevertheless, reports on RIP in plants, and especially in chloroplasts, are still scarce. Of the four different families of intramembrane proteases, only two have been linked to chloroplasts so far, rhomboids and site-2 proteases (S2Ps). The lack of chloroplast-located rhomboid proteases was associated with reduced fertility and aberrations in flower morphology, probably due to perturbations in jasmonic acid biosynthesis, which occurs in chloroplasts. Mutations in homologues of S2P resulted in chlorophyll deficiency and impaired chloroplast development, through a yet unknown mechanism. To date, the only known substrate of RIP in chloroplasts is a PHD transcription factor, located in the envelope. Upon proteolytic cleavage by an unknown protease, the soluble N-terminal domain of this protein is released from the membrane and relocates to the nucleus, where it activates the transcription of the ABA response gene ABI4. Continuing studies on these proteases and substrates, as well as identification of the genes responsible for different chloroplast mutant phenotypes, are expected to shed more light on the roles of intramembrane proteases in chloroplast biology.

Organization, function and substrates of the essential Clp protease system in plastids

Intra-plastid proteolysis is essential in plastid biogenesis, differentiation and plastid protein homeostasis (proteostasis). We provide a comprehensive review of the Clp protease system present in all plastid types and we draw lessons from structural and functional information of bacterial Clp systems. The Clp system plays a central role in plastid development and function, through selective removal of miss-folded, aggregated, or otherwise unwanted proteins. The Clp system consists of a tetradecameric proteolytic core with catalytically active ClpP and inactive ClpR subunits, hexameric ATP-dependent chaperones (ClpC,D) and adaptor protein(s) (ClpS1) enhancing delivery of subsets of substrates. Many structural and functional features of the plastid Clp system are now understood though extensive reverse genetics analysis combined with biochemical analysis, as well as large scale quantitative proteomics for loss-of-function mutants of Clp core, chaperone and ClpS1 subunits. Evolutionary diversification of Clp system across non-photosynthetic and photosynthetic prokaryotes and organelles is illustrated. Multiple substrates have been suggested based on their direct interaction with the ClpS1 adaptor or screening of different loss-of-function protease mutants. The main challenge is now to determine degradation signals (degrons) in Clp substrates and substrate delivery mechanisms, as well as functional interactions of Clp with other plastid proteases. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Chloroplast Biogenesis.

Shredding the signal: targeting peptide degradation in mitochondria and chloroplasts

The biogenesis and functionality of mitochondria and chloroplasts depend on the constant turnover of their proteins. The majority of mitochondrial and chloroplastic proteins are imported as precursors via their N-terminal targeting peptides. After import, the targeting peptides are cleaved off and degraded. Recent work has elucidated a pathway involved in the degradation of targeting peptides in mitochondria and chloroplasts, with two proteolytic components: the presequence protease (PreP) and the organellar oligopeptidase (OOP). PreP and OOP are specialized in degrading peptides of different lengths, with the substrate restriction being dictated by the structure of their proteolytic cavities. The importance of the intraorganellar peptide degradation is highlighted by the fact that elimination of both oligopeptidases affects growth and development of Arabidopsis thaliana.

Natural variation in sensitivity to a loss of chloroplast translation in Arabidopsis

Mutations that eliminate chloroplast translation in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) result in embryo lethality. The stage of embryo arrest, however, can be influenced by genetic background. To identify genes responsible for improved growth in the absence of chloroplast translation, we examined seedling responses of different Arabidopsis accessions on spectinomycin, an inhibitor of chloroplast translation, and crossed the most tolerant accessions with embryo-defective mutants disrupted in chloroplast ribosomal proteins generated in a sensitive background. The results indicate that tolerance is mediated by ACC2, a duplicated nuclear gene that targets homomeric acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase to plastids, where the multidomain protein can participate in fatty acid biosynthesis. In the presence of functional ACC2, tolerance is enhanced by a second locus that maps to chromosome 5 and heightened by additional genetic modifiers present in the most tolerant accessions. Notably, some of the most sensitive accessions contain nonsense mutations in ACC2, including the "Nossen" line used to generate several of the mutants studied here. Functional ACC2 protein is therefore not required for survival in natural environments, where heteromeric acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase encoded in part by the chloroplast genome can function instead. This work highlights an interesting example of a tandem gene duplication in Arabidopsis, helps to explain the range of embryo phenotypes found in Arabidopsis mutants disrupted in essential chloroplast functions, addresses the nature of essential proteins encoded by the chloroplast genome, and underscores the value of using natural variation to study the relationship between chloroplast translation, plant metabolism, protein import, and plant development.

New insights into the mechanism of chloroplast protein import and its integration with protein quality control, organelle biogenesis and development

The translocons at the outer (TOC) and the inner (TIC) envelope membranes of chloroplasts mediate the targeting and import of several thousand nucleus-encoded preproteins that are required for organelle biogenesis and homeostasis. The cytosolic events in preprotein targeting remain largely unknown, although cytoplasmic chaperones have been proposed to facilitate delivery to the TOC complex. Preprotein recognition is mediated by the TOC GTPase receptors Toc159 and Toc34. The receptors constitute a GTP-regulated switch, which initiates membrane translocation via Toc75, a member of the Omp85 (outer membrane protein 85)/TpsB (two-partner secretion system B) family of bacterial, plastid and mitochondrial β-barrel outer membrane proteins. The TOC receptor systems have diversified to recognize distinct sets of preproteins, thereby maximizing the efficiency of targeting in response to changes in gene expression during developmental and physiological events that impact organelle function. The TOC complex interacts with the TIC translocon to allow simultaneous translocation of preproteins across the envelope. Both the two inner membrane complexes, the Tic110 and 1 MDa complexes, have been implicated as constituents of the TIC translocon, and it remains to be determined how they interact to form the TIC channel and assemble the import-associated chaperone network in the stroma that drives import across the envelope membranes. This review will focus on recent developments in our understanding of the mechanisms and diversity of the TOC-TIC systems. Our goal is to incorporate these recent studies with previous work and present updated or revised models for the function of TOC-TIC in protein import.

The distinct functional roles of the inner and outer chloroplast envelope of Pea (Pisum sativum) as revealed by proteomic approaches

Protein profiles of inner (IE) and outer (OE) chloroplast envelope membrane preparations from pea were studied using shotgun nLC-MS/MS and two-dimensional electrophoresis, and 589 protein species (NCBI entries) were identified. The relative enrichment of each protein in the IE/OE pair of membranes was used to provide an integrated picture of the chloroplast envelope. From the 546 proteins identified with shotgun, 321 showed a significant differential distribution, with 180 being enriched in IE and 141 in OE. To avoid redundancy and facilitate in silico localization, Arabidopsis homologues were used to obtain a nonredundant list of 409 envelope proteins, with many showing significant OE or IE enrichment. Functional classification reveals that IE is a selective barrier for transport of many metabolites and plays a major role in controlling protein homeostasis, whereas proteins in OE are more heterogeneous and participate in a wide range of processes. Data support that metabolic processes previously described to occur in the envelope such as chlorophyll and tocopherol biosynthesis can be ascribed to the IE, whereas others such as carotenoid or lipid biosynthesis occur in both membranes. Furthermore, results allow empirical assignation to the IE and/or OE of many proteins previously assigned to the bulk chloroplast envelope proteome.

ClpS1 is a conserved substrate selector for the chloroplast Clp protease system in Arabidopsis

Whereas the plastid caseinolytic peptidase (Clp) P protease system is essential for plant development, substrates and substrate selection mechanisms are unknown. Bacterial ClpS is involved in N-degron substrate selection and delivery to the ClpAP protease. Through phylogenetic analysis, we show that all angiosperms contain ClpS1 and some species also contain ClpS1-like protein(s). In silico analysis suggests that ClpS1 is the functional homolog of bacterial ClpS. We show that Arabidopsis thaliana ClpS1 interacts with plastid ClpC1,2 chaperones. The Arabidopsis ClpS1 null mutant (clps1) lacks a visible phenotype, and no genetic interactions with ClpC/D chaperone or ClpPR core mutants were observed. However, clps1, but not clpc1-1, has increased sensitivity to the translational elongation inhibitor chloramphenicol suggesting a link between translational capacity and ClpS1. Moreover, ClpS1 was upregulated in clpc1-1, and quantitative proteomics of clps1, clpc1, and clps1 clpc1 showed specific molecular phenotypes attributed to loss of ClpC1 or ClpS1. In particular, clps1 showed alteration of the tetrapyrrole pathway. Affinity purification identified eight candidate ClpS1 substrates, including plastid DNA repair proteins and Glu tRNA reductase, which is a control point for tetrapyrrole synthesis. ClpS1 interaction with five substrates strictly depended on two conserved ClpS1 residues involved in N-degron recognition. ClpS1 function, substrates, and substrate recognition mechanisms are discussed.

Processing peptidases in mitochondria and chloroplasts

Most of the mitochondrial and chloroplastic proteins are nuclear encoded and synthesized in the cytosol as precursor proteins with N-terminal extensions called targeting peptides. Targeting peptides function as organellar import signals, they are recognized by the import receptors and route precursors through the protein translocons across the organellar membranes. After the fulfilled function, targeting peptides are proteolytically cleaved off inside the organelles by different processing peptidases. The processing of mitochondrial precursors is catalyzed in the matrix by the Mitochondrial Processing Peptidase, MPP, the Mitochondrial Intermediate Peptidase, MIP (recently called Octapeptidyl aminopeptidase 1, Oct1) and the Intermediate cleaving peptidase of 55kDa, Icp55. Furthermore, different inner membrane peptidases (Inner Membrane Proteases, IMPs, Atp23, rhomboids and AAA proteases) catalyze additional processing functions, resulting in intra-mitochondrial sorting of proteins, the targeting to the intermembrane space or in the assembly of proteins into inner membrane complexes. Chloroplast targeting peptides are cleaved off in the stroma by the Stromal Processing Peptidase, SPP. If the protein is further translocated to the thylakoid lumen, an additional thylakoid-transfer sequence is removed by the Thylakoidal Processing Peptidase, TPP. Proper function of the D1 protein of Photosystem II reaction center requires its C-terminal processing by Carboxy-terminal processing protease, CtpA. Both in mitochondria and in chloroplasts, the cleaved targeting peptides are finally degraded by the Presequence Protease, PreP. The organellar proteases involved in precursor processing and targeting peptide degradation constitute themselves a quality control system ensuring the correct maturation and localization of proteins as well as assembly of protein complexes, contributing to sustenance of organelle functions. Dysfunctions of several mitochondrial processing proteases have been shown to be associated with human diseases. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Protein Import and Quality Control in Mitochondria and Plastids.

Plastid proteome assembly without Toc159: photosynthetic protein import and accumulation of N-acetylated plastid precursor proteins

Import of nuclear-encoded precursor proteins from the cytosol is an essential step in chloroplast biogenesis that is mediated by protein translocon complexes at the inner and outer envelope membrane (TOC). Toc159 is thought to be the main receptor for photosynthetic proteins, but lacking a large-scale systems approach, this hypothesis has only been tested for a handful of photosynthetic and nonphotosynthetic proteins. To assess Toc159 precursor specificity, we quantitatively analyzed the accumulation of plastid proteins in two mutant lines deficient in this receptor. Parallel genome-wide transcript profiling allowed us to discern the consequences of impaired protein import from systemic transcriptional responses that contribute to the loss of photosynthetic capacity. On this basis, we defined putative Toc159-independent and Toc159-dependent precursor proteins. Many photosynthetic proteins accumulate in Toc159-deficient plastids, and, surprisingly, several distinct metabolic pathways are negatively affected by Toc159 depletion. Lack of Toc159 furthermore affects several proteins that accumulate as unprocessed N-acetylated precursor proteins outside of plastids. Together, our data show an unexpected client protein promiscuity of Toc159 that requires a far more differentiated view of Toc159 receptor function and regulation of plastid protein import, in which cytosolic Met removal followed by N-terminal acetylation of precursors emerges as an additional regulatory step.