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Shen X, Li X, Wu T, Guo T, Lv J, He Z, Luo M, Zhu X, Tian Y, Lai W, Dong C, Hu X, Wu L. TRIM33 plays a critical role in regulating dendritic cell differentiation and homeostasis by modulating Irf8 and Bcl2l11 transcription. Cell Mol Immunol 2024; 21:752-769. [PMID: 38822080 PMCID: PMC11214632 DOI: 10.1038/s41423-024-01179-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 06/02/2024] Open
Abstract
The development of distinct dendritic cell (DC) subsets, namely, plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs) and conventional DC subsets (cDC1s and cDC2s), is controlled by specific transcription factors. IRF8 is essential for the fate specification of cDC1s. However, how the expression of Irf8 is regulated is not fully understood. In this study, we identified TRIM33 as a critical regulator of DC differentiation and maintenance. TRIM33 deletion in Trim33fl/fl Cre-ERT2 mice significantly impaired DC differentiation from hematopoietic progenitors at different developmental stages. TRIM33 deficiency downregulated the expression of multiple genes associated with DC differentiation in these progenitors. TRIM33 promoted the transcription of Irf8 to facilitate the differentiation of cDC1s by maintaining adequate CDK9 and Ser2 phosphorylated RNA polymerase II (S2 Pol II) levels at Irf8 gene sites. Moreover, TRIM33 prevented the apoptosis of DCs and progenitors by directly suppressing the PU.1-mediated transcription of Bcl2l11, thereby maintaining DC homeostasis. Taken together, our findings identified TRIM33 as a novel and crucial regulator of DC differentiation and maintenance through the modulation of Irf8 and Bcl2l11 expression. The finding that TRIM33 functions as a critical regulator of both DC differentiation and survival provides potential benefits for devising DC-based immune interventions and therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangyi Shen
- Institute for Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoguang Li
- Institute for Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
- Joint Graduate Program of Peking-Tsinghua-National Institute of Biological Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
| | - Tao Wu
- Institute for Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
| | - Tingting Guo
- Institute for Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
| | - Jiaoyan Lv
- Institute for Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
| | - Zhimin He
- Institute for Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
| | - Maocai Luo
- Institute for Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
| | - Xinyi Zhu
- Institute for Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
| | - Yujie Tian
- Institute for Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
- Joint Graduate Program of Peking-Tsinghua-National Institute of Biological Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
| | - Wenlong Lai
- Institute for Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
| | - Chen Dong
- Institute for Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Immunological Research on Chronic Diseases, 100084, Beijing, China
- Westlake University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310024, China
| | - Xiaoyu Hu
- Institute for Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Immunological Research on Chronic Diseases, 100084, Beijing, China
| | - Li Wu
- Institute for Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China.
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China.
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Immunological Research on Chronic Diseases, 100084, Beijing, China.
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Wang L, Li X, Yang S, Chen X, Li J, Wang S, Zhang M, Zheng Z, Zhou J, Wang L, Wu Y. Proteomic identification of MHC class I-associated peptidome derived from non-obese diabetic mouse thymus and pancreas. J Proteomics 2023; 270:104746. [PMID: 36210013 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2022.104746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2022] [Revised: 09/17/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The peptides repertoire presented to CD8+ T cells by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules is referred to as the MHC I-associated peptidome (MIP), which regulates thymus development, peripheral survival and function during lifetime of CD8+ T cells. Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an organ-specific autoimmune disease caused by pancreatic β cells destruction mediated primarily by autoreactive CD8+ T cells. Non-obese diabetic (NOD) mouse is an important animal model of T1D. Here, we deeply analyzed the MIP derived from NOD mice thymus and pancreas, and demonstrated that the thymus MIP source proteins partially shared with the MIP source proteins derived from NOD mice pancreas and β cell line. One H-2Kd restricted peptide SLC35B126-34 which was shared by MIP derived from both NOD mice pancreatic tissues and islet β-cell line, but absent in MIP from NOD thymus tissues, showed ability to stimulate IFN-γ secretion and proliferation of NOD mice splenic CD8+ T cells. The global view of the MHC I-associated self-peptides repertoire in the thymus and pancreas of NOD mice may serve as a biological reference to identify potential autoantigens targeted by autoreactive CD8+ T cells in T1D. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD031966. SIGNIFICANCE: The peptides repertoire presented to CD8+ T cells by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules is referred to as the MHC I-associated peptidome (MIP). The MIP presented by thymic antigen presenting cells (APCs) is crucial for shaping CD8+ T cell repertoire and self-tolerance, while the MIP presented by peripheral tissues and organs is not only involved in maintaining periphery CD8+ T cell survival and homeostasis, but also mediates immune surveillance and autoimmune responses of CD8+ T cells under pathological conditions. Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an organ-specific autoimmune disease caused by the destruction of pancreatic β cells, mediated primarily by autoreactive CD8+ T cells. Non-obese diabetic (NOD) mouse is one of important animal models of spontaneous autoimmune diabetes that shares several key features with human T1D. The global view of the MHC I-associated self-peptides repertoire in the thymus and pancreas of NOD mice may serve as a good biological reference to identify potential autoantigens targeted by autoreactive CD8+ T cells in T1D. It has great significance for further clarifying the immune recognition and effect mechanism of autoreactive CD8+ T cells in the pathogenesis of T1D, and then developing antigen-specific immune intervention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Wang
- Department of Immunology, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong 266071, China; Institute of Immunology PLA & Department of Immunology, College of Basic Medicine, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China; Department of Immunology, College of Basic Medicine, Weifang Medical University, Weifang 261053, China
| | - Xiangqian Li
- Institute of Immunology PLA & Department of Immunology, College of Basic Medicine, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Shushu Yang
- Institute of Immunology PLA & Department of Immunology, College of Basic Medicine, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Xiaoling Chen
- Institute of Immunology PLA & Department of Immunology, College of Basic Medicine, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Jie Li
- Institute of Immunology PLA & Department of Immunology, College of Basic Medicine, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Shufeng Wang
- Institute of Immunology PLA & Department of Immunology, College of Basic Medicine, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Mengjun Zhang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, College of Pharmacy, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Zhengni Zheng
- Department of Dermatology, Southwest Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Jie Zhou
- Department of Dermatology, Southwest Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Li Wang
- Institute of Immunology PLA & Department of Immunology, College of Basic Medicine, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China.
| | - Yuzhang Wu
- Department of Immunology, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong 266071, China; Institute of Immunology PLA & Department of Immunology, College of Basic Medicine, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China.
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Bella Á, Arrizabalaga L, Di Trani CA, Fernández-Sendin M, Teijeira A, Russo-Cabrera JS, Melero I, Berraondo P, Aranda F. Omentum: Friend or foe in ovarian cancer immunotherapy? INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2022; 371:117-131. [PMID: 35964998 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2022.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Ovarian cancer often spreads out of the ovary before a patient is diagnosed and is the deadliest gynecological malignancy. The aggressiveness of ovarian cancer is determined by the progression in the form of peritoneal carcinomatosis, a stage with a poor prognosis and an untreatable condition in most patients. One of the first tumor nests or the origin of metastasis in the peritoneal cavity is the omentum. The omentum contains immune aggregates, called milky spots, embedded in adipose tissue, which support tumor growth by various mechanisms, including immunosuppressive immune cells and metabolic functions. In this sense, the abundance of blood vessels, omental resident macrophages, and chemokines, among other factors, are known to promote invasiveness, proliferation and resistance to cancer therapies. As a result, surgical practice employed in advanced-stage ovarian cancer almost constantly includes omentectomy. Paradoxically, the omentum is considered the "abdominal policeman" that contributes to peritoneal immunity by capturing antigens and pathogens from the peritoneal cavity and promoting effective immune responses against microbes. Why immunosurveillance against the metastatic tumor does not take place in the omentum? Could omental immune responses be activated with immunotherapeutic interventions? The omentum has largely been ignored in cancer immunology and immunotherapy, and the potential translational implications of this in ovarian cancer are still unclear. Here, we focus on the dual role of the omentum in ovarian cancer: its role in antitumor immune responses versus its activities fostering cancer progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ángela Bella
- Program of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Cima Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain; Navarra Institute for Health Research (IdiSNA), Pamplona, Spain.
| | - Leire Arrizabalaga
- Program of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Cima Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain; Navarra Institute for Health Research (IdiSNA), Pamplona, Spain
| | - Claudia Augusta Di Trani
- Program of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Cima Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain; Navarra Institute for Health Research (IdiSNA), Pamplona, Spain
| | - Myriam Fernández-Sendin
- Program of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Cima Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain; Navarra Institute for Health Research (IdiSNA), Pamplona, Spain
| | - Alvaro Teijeira
- Program of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Cima Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Joan Salvador Russo-Cabrera
- Program of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Cima Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain; Navarra Institute for Health Research (IdiSNA), Pamplona, Spain
| | - Ignacio Melero
- Program of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Cima Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain; Navarra Institute for Health Research (IdiSNA), Pamplona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Madrid, Spain; Translational Oncology Group, Program in Solid Tumors, Cima Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain; Department of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Clinica Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Pedro Berraondo
- Program of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Cima Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain; Navarra Institute for Health Research (IdiSNA), Pamplona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Fernando Aranda
- Program of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Cima Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain; Navarra Institute for Health Research (IdiSNA), Pamplona, Spain.
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Bos A, van Egmond M, Mebius R. The role of retinoic acid in the production of immunoglobulin A. Mucosal Immunol 2022; 15:562-572. [PMID: 35418672 DOI: 10.1038/s41385-022-00509-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Revised: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 03/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Vitamin A and its derivative retinoic acid (RA) play important roles in the regulation of mucosal immunity. The effect of vitamin A metabolism on T lymphocyte immunity has been well documented, but its role in mucosal B lymphocyte regulation is less well described. Intestinal immunoglobulin A (IgA) is key in orchestrating a balanced gut microbiota composition. Here, we describe the contribution of RA to IgA class switching in tissues including the lamina propria, mesenteric lymph nodes, Peyer's patches and isolated lymphoid follicles. RA can either indirectly skew T cells or directly affect B cell differentiation. IgA levels in healthy individuals are under the control of the metabolism of vitamin A, providing a steady supply of RA. However, IgA levels are altered in inflammatory bowel disease patients, making control of the metabolism of vitamin A a potential therapeutic target. Thus, dietary vitamin A is a key player in regulating IgA production within the intestine, acting via multiple immunological pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amelie Bos
- Amsterdam UMC, Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Research Institute of Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marjolein van Egmond
- Amsterdam UMC, Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Research Institute of Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Amsterdam UMC, Department of Surgery, Research Institute of Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Reina Mebius
- Amsterdam UMC, Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Research Institute of Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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5
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Herppich S, Beckstette M, Huehn J. The thymic microenvironment gradually modulates the phenotype of thymus-homing peripheral conventional dendritic cells. IMMUNITY INFLAMMATION AND DISEASE 2021; 10:175-188. [PMID: 34748687 PMCID: PMC8767516 DOI: 10.1002/iid3.559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Background & Aims Thymic conventional dendritic cells (t‑DCs) are crucial for the development of T cells. A substantial fraction of t‑DCs originates extrathymically and migrates to the thymus. Here, these cells contribute to key processes of central tolerance like the clonal deletion of self‑reactive thymocytes and the generation of regulatory T (Treg) cells. So far, it is only incompletely understood which impact the thymic microenvironment has on thymus‑homing conventional DCs (cDCs), which phenotypic changes occur after the entry of peripheral cDCs into the thymus and which functional properties these modulated cells acquire. Materials & Methods In the present study, we mimicked the thymus‑homing of peripheral cDCs by introducing ex vivo isolated splenic cDCs (sp‑DCs) into reaggregated thymic organ cultures (RTOCs). Results Already after two days of culture, the transcriptomic profile of sp‑DCs was modulated and had acquired certain key signatures of t‑DCs. The regulated genes included immunomodulatory cytokines and chemokines as well as costimulatory molecules. After four days of culture, sp‑DCs appeared to have at least partially acquired the peculiar Treg cell‐inducing capacity characteristic of t‑DCs. Discussion & Conclusion Taken together, our findings indicate that peripheral cDCs possess a high degree of plasticity enabling them to quickly adapt to the thymus‐specific microenvironment. We further provide indirect evidence that thymus‐specific properties such as the efficient induction of Treg cells under homeostatic conditions can be partially transferred to thymus‑homing peripheral cDC subsets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Herppich
- Department Experimental Immunology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Michael Beckstette
- Department Experimental Immunology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany.,Department of Computational Biology for Individualised Medicine, Centre for Individualised Infection Medicine, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research and Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Jochen Huehn
- Department Experimental Immunology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
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Posttranslational modifications by ADAM10 shape myeloid antigen-presenting cell homeostasis in the splenic marginal zone. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2111234118. [PMID: 34526403 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2111234118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The spleen contains phenotypically and functionally distinct conventional dendritic cell (cDC) subpopulations, termed cDC1 and cDC2, which each can be divided into several smaller and less well-characterized subsets. Despite advances in understanding the complexity of cDC ontogeny by transcriptional programming, the significance of posttranslational modifications in controlling tissue-specific cDC subset immunobiology remains elusive. Here, we identified the cell-surface-expressed A-disintegrin-and-metalloproteinase 10 (ADAM10) as an essential regulator of cDC1 and cDC2 homeostasis in the splenic marginal zone (MZ). Mice with a CD11c-specific deletion of ADAM10 (ADAM10ΔCD11c) exhibited a complete loss of splenic ESAMhi cDC2A because ADAM10 regulated the commitment, differentiation, and survival of these cells. The major pathways controlled by ADAM10 in ESAMhi cDC2A are Notch, signaling pathways involved in cell proliferation and survival (e.g., mTOR, PI3K/AKT, and EIF2 signaling), and EBI2-mediated localization within the MZ. In addition, we discovered that ADAM10 is a molecular switch regulating cDC2 subset heterogeneity in the spleen, as the disappearance of ESAMhi cDC2A in ADAM10ΔCD11c mice was compensated for by the emergence of a Clec12a+ cDC2B subset closely resembling cDC2 generally found in peripheral lymph nodes. Moreover, in ADAM10ΔCD11c mice, terminal differentiation of cDC1 was abrogated, resulting in severely reduced splenic Langerin+ cDC1 numbers. Next to the disturbed splenic cDC compartment, ADAM10 deficiency on CD11c+ cells led to an increase in marginal metallophilic macrophage (MMM) numbers. In conclusion, our data identify ADAM10 as a molecular hub on both cDC and MMM regulating their transcriptional programming, turnover, homeostasis, and ability to shape the anatomical niche of the MZ.
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de Winde CM, Munday C, Acton SE. Molecular mechanisms of dendritic cell migration in immunity and cancer. Med Microbiol Immunol 2020; 209:515-529. [PMID: 32451606 PMCID: PMC7395046 DOI: 10.1007/s00430-020-00680-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are a heterogeneous population of antigen-presenting cells that act to bridge innate and adaptive immunity. DCs are critical in mounting effective immune responses to tissue damage, pathogens and cancer. Immature DCs continuously sample tissues and engulf antigens via endocytic pathways such as phagocytosis or macropinocytosis, which result in DC activation. Activated DCs undergo a maturation process by downregulating endocytosis and upregulating surface proteins controlling migration to lymphoid tissues where DC-mediated antigen presentation initiates adaptive immune responses. To traffic to lymphoid tissues, DCs must adapt their motility mechanisms to migrate within a wide variety of tissue types and cross barriers to enter lymphatics. All steps of DC migration involve cell-cell or cell-substrate interactions. This review discusses DC migration mechanisms in immunity and cancer with a focus on the role of cytoskeletal processes and cell surface proteins, including integrins, lectins and tetraspanins. Understanding the adapting molecular mechanisms controlling DC migration in immunity provides the basis for therapeutic interventions to dampen immune activation in autoimmunity, or to improve anti-tumour immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte M de Winde
- Stromal Immunology Group, MRC Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK.
| | - Clare Munday
- Stromal Immunology Group, MRC Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Sophie E Acton
- Stromal Immunology Group, MRC Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
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Majdoubi A, Lee JS, Balood M, Sabourin A, DeMontigny A, Kishta OA, Moulefera MA, Galbas T, Yun TJ, Talbot S, Ishido S, Cheong C, Thibodeau J. Downregulation of MHC Class II by Ubiquitination Is Required for the Migration of CD206 + Dendritic Cells to Skin-Draining Lymph Nodes. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 203:2887-2898. [PMID: 31659013 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1900593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2019] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are critical players in skin homeostasis. A subset of mannose receptor (CD206)-expressing monocyte-derived DCs was found in skin, and their migratory counterpart is present in skin-draining lymph nodes (sdLNs). Skin CD206+ DCs were shown to upregulate MHC class II (MHCII) progressively, raising the question of whether this feature affects their biology. In this study, we assessed the role of MHCII regulation in the development and migration of these cells in mouse models expressing differential MHCII levels. Using CD206 as a surrogate marker, we found that skin CD206+ DCs develop in an MHCII-independent manner. However, their migration to sdLNs was affected by overexpression rather than absence or lower expression of MHCII. Accordingly, B16 tumor growth was exacerbated in mice overexpressing MHCII in the absence of ubiquitination. Mechanistically, CD206+ DCs from these mice showed decreased IRF4 and CCR7 expression. LPS, which is known to promote monocyte-derived DC recruitment to sdLNs, partially improved these defects. However, GM-CSF delivery restored CD206+ DC migration by promoting IRF4 expression. Collectively, these data show that MHCII downregulation is crucial for IRF4-dependent migration of CD206+ DCs to sdLNs in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdelilah Majdoubi
- Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal H3T 1J4, Quebec, Canada
| | - Jun Seong Lee
- Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal H3T 1J4, Quebec, Canada
| | - Mohammad Balood
- Département de Pharmacologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal H3T 1J4, Quebec, Canada
| | - Antoine Sabourin
- Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal H3T 1J4, Quebec, Canada
| | - Auriane DeMontigny
- Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal H3T 1J4, Quebec, Canada
| | - Osama A Kishta
- Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal H3T 1J4, Quebec, Canada
| | - Mohamed Abdelwafi Moulefera
- Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal H3T 1J4, Quebec, Canada
| | - Tristan Galbas
- Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal H3T 1J4, Quebec, Canada
| | - Tae Jin Yun
- Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal, Montreal H2W 1R7, Quebec, Canada; and
| | - Sébastien Talbot
- Département de Pharmacologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal H3T 1J4, Quebec, Canada
| | - Satoshi Ishido
- Department of Microbiology, Hyogo College of Medicine, Nishinomiya, Hyogo 663-8501, Japan
| | - Cheolho Cheong
- Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal, Montreal H2W 1R7, Quebec, Canada; and
| | - Jacques Thibodeau
- Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal H3T 1J4, Quebec, Canada;
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Vangeti S, Gertow J, Yu M, Liu S, Baharom F, Scholz S, Friberg D, Starkhammar M, Ahlberg A, Smed-Sörensen A. Human Blood and Tonsil Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells Display Similar Gene Expression Profiles but Exhibit Differential Type I IFN Responses to Influenza A Virus Infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 202:2069-2081. [PMID: 30760619 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1801191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2018] [Accepted: 01/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) infection constitutes an annual health burden across the globe. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDCs) are central in antiviral defense because of their superior capacity to produce type I IFNs in response to viruses. Dendritic cells (DCs) differ depending on their anatomical location. However, only limited host-pathogen data are available from the initial site of infection in humans. In this study, we investigated how human tonsil PDCs, likely exposed to virus because of their location, responded to IAV infection compared with peripheral blood PDCs. In tonsils, unlike in blood, PDCs are the most frequent DC subset. Both tonsil and blood PDCs expressed several genes necessary for pathogen recognition and immune response, generally in a similar pattern. MxA, a protein that renders cells resistant to IAV infection, was detected in both tonsil and blood PDCs. However, despite steady-state MxA expression and contrary to previous reports, at high IAV concentrations (typically cytopathic to other immune cells), both tonsil and blood PDCs supported IAV infection. IAV exposure resulted in PDC maturation by upregulation of CD86 expression and IFN-α secretion. Interestingly, blood PDCs secreted 10-fold more IFN-α in response to IAV compared with tonsil PDCs. Tonsil PDCs also had a dampened cytokine response to purified TLR ligands compared with blood PDCs. Our findings suggest that tonsil PDCs may be less responsive to IAV than blood PDCs, highlighting the importance of studying immune cells at their proposed site of function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sindhu Vangeti
- Division of Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institutet, 171 64 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jens Gertow
- Division of Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institutet, 171 64 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Meng Yu
- Division of Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institutet, 171 64 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sang Liu
- Division of Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institutet, 171 64 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Faezzah Baharom
- Division of Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institutet, 171 64 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Saskia Scholz
- Division of Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institutet, 171 64 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Danielle Friberg
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Uppsala University, 751 85 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Magnus Starkhammar
- Capio Ear, Nose and Throat Clinic Globen, 121 77 Johanneshov, Sweden; and
| | - Alexander Ahlberg
- Division of Ear, Nose and Throat Diseases, Department of Clinical Science, Intervention and Technology, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, Huddinge, 141 86 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anna Smed-Sörensen
- Division of Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institutet, 171 64 Stockholm, Sweden;
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10
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Pigni M, Ashok D, Stevanin M, Acha-Orbea H. Establishment and Characterization of a Functionally Competent Type 2 Conventional Dendritic Cell Line. Front Immunol 2018; 9:1912. [PMID: 30197645 PMCID: PMC6117413 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.01912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2018] [Accepted: 08/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are the most potent antigen presenting cells and possess an incomparable ability to activate and instruct T cells, which makes them one of the cornerstones in the regulation of the cross-talk between innate and adaptive immunity. Therefore, a deep understanding of DC biology lays the foundations to describe and to harness the mechanisms that regulate the development of the adaptive response, with clear implications in a vast array of fields such as the study of autoimmune diseases and the development of new vaccines. However, the great difficulty to obtain large quantities of viable non-activated DCs for experimentation have considerably hindered the progress of DC research. Several strategies have been proposed to overcome these limitations by promoting an increase of DC abundance in vivo, by inducing DC development from DC progenitors in vitro and by generating stable DC lines. In the past years, we have described a method to derive immortalized stable DC lines, named MutuDCs, from the spleens of Mushi1 mice, a transgenic mouse strain that express the simian virus 40 Large T-oncogene in the DCs. The comparison of these DC lines with the vast variety of DC subsets described in vivo has shown that all the MutuDC lines that we have generated so far have phenotypic and functional features of type 1 conventional DCs (cDC1s). With the purpose of deriving DC lines with characteristics of type 2 conventional DCs (cDC2s), we bred a new Batf3-/- Mushi1 murine line in which the development of the cDC1 subset is severely defective. The new MutuDC line that we generated from Batf3-/- Mushi1 mice was phenotypically and functionally characterized in this work. Our results demonstrated that all the tested characteristics of this new cell line, including the expression of subset-determining transcription factors, the profile of cytokine production and the ability to present antigens, are comparable with the features of splenic CD4- cDC2s. Therefore, we concluded that our new cell line, that we named CD4- MutuDC2 line, represents a valuable model for the CD4- cDC2 subset.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Hans Acha-Orbea
- Department of Biochemistry CIIL, University of Lausanne, Épalinges, Switzerland
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11
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Gornati L, Zanoni I, Granucci F. Dendritic Cells in the Cross Hair for the Generation of Tailored Vaccines. Front Immunol 2018; 9:1484. [PMID: 29997628 PMCID: PMC6030256 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.01484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2018] [Accepted: 06/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaccines represent the discovery of utmost importance for global health, due to both prophylactic action to prevent infections and therapeutic intervention in neoplastic diseases. Despite this, current vaccination strategies need to be refined to successfully generate robust protective antigen-specific memory immune responses. To address this issue, one possibility is to exploit the high efficiency of dendritic cells (DCs) as antigen-presenting cells for T cell priming. DCs functional plasticity allows shaping the outcome of immune responses to achieve the required type of immunity. Therefore, the choice of adjuvants to guide and sustain DCs maturation, the design of multifaceted vehicles, and the choice of surface molecules to specifically target DCs represent the key issues currently explored in both preclinical and clinical settings. Here, we review advances in DCs-based vaccination approaches, which exploit direct in vivo DCs targeting and activation options. We also discuss the recent findings for efficient antitumor DCs-based vaccinations and combination strategies to reduce the immune tolerance promoted by the tumor microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Gornati
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Ivan Zanoni
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy.,Division of Gastroenterology, Harvard Medical School, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Francesca Granucci
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
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12
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Ardouin L, Luche H, Chelbi R, Carpentier S, Shawket A, Montanana Sanchis F, Santa Maria C, Grenot P, Alexandre Y, Grégoire C, Fries A, Vu Manh TP, Tamoutounour S, Crozat K, Tomasello E, Jorquera A, Fossum E, Bogen B, Azukizawa H, Bajenoff M, Henri S, Dalod M, Malissen B. Broad and Largely Concordant Molecular Changes Characterize Tolerogenic and Immunogenic Dendritic Cell Maturation in Thymus and Periphery. Immunity 2017; 45:305-18. [PMID: 27533013 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2016.07.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2015] [Revised: 02/29/2016] [Accepted: 05/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are instrumental in the initiation of T cell responses, but how thymic and peripheral tolerogenic DCs differ globally from Toll-like receptor (TLR)-induced immunogenic DCs remains unclear. Here, we show that thymic XCR1(+) DCs undergo a high rate of maturation, accompanied by profound gene-expression changes that are essential for central tolerance and also happen in germ-free mice. Those changes largely overlap those occurring during tolerogenic and, more unexpectedly, TLR-induced maturation of peripheral XCR1(+) DCs, arguing against the commonly held view that tolerogenic DCs undergo incomplete maturation. Interferon-stimulated gene (ISG) expression was among the few discriminators of immunogenic and tolerogenic XCR1(+) DCs. Tolerogenic XCR1(+) thymic DCs were, however, unique in expressing ISGs known to restrain virus replication. Therefore, a broad functional convergence characterizes tolerogenic and immunogenic XCR1(+) DC maturation in the thymus and periphery, maximizing antigen presentation and signal delivery to developing and to conventional and regulatory mature T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurence Ardouin
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université, INSERM, CNRS, 13288 Marseille, France
| | - Hervé Luche
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université, INSERM, CNRS, 13288 Marseille, France; Centre d'Immunophénomique, Aix Marseille Université, INSERM, CNRS, 13288 Marseille, France
| | - Rabie Chelbi
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université, INSERM, CNRS, 13288 Marseille, France
| | | | - Alaa Shawket
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université, INSERM, CNRS, 13288 Marseille, France
| | - Frédéric Montanana Sanchis
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université, INSERM, CNRS, 13288 Marseille, France
| | - Camille Santa Maria
- Centre d'Immunophénomique, Aix Marseille Université, INSERM, CNRS, 13288 Marseille, France
| | - Pierre Grenot
- Centre d'Immunophénomique, Aix Marseille Université, INSERM, CNRS, 13288 Marseille, France
| | - Yannick Alexandre
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université, INSERM, CNRS, 13288 Marseille, France
| | - Claude Grégoire
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université, INSERM, CNRS, 13288 Marseille, France
| | - Anissa Fries
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université, INSERM, CNRS, 13288 Marseille, France
| | - Thien-Phong Vu Manh
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université, INSERM, CNRS, 13288 Marseille, France
| | - Samira Tamoutounour
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université, INSERM, CNRS, 13288 Marseille, France
| | - Karine Crozat
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université, INSERM, CNRS, 13288 Marseille, France
| | - Elena Tomasello
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université, INSERM, CNRS, 13288 Marseille, France
| | - Audrey Jorquera
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université, INSERM, CNRS, 13288 Marseille, France
| | - Even Fossum
- Institute of Immunology, University of Oslo and Oslo University Hospital Rikshospitalet, 0424 Oslo, Norway
| | - Bjarne Bogen
- Institute of Immunology, University of Oslo and Oslo University Hospital Rikshospitalet, 0424 Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Marc Bajenoff
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université, INSERM, CNRS, 13288 Marseille, France
| | - Sandrine Henri
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université, INSERM, CNRS, 13288 Marseille, France
| | - Marc Dalod
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université, INSERM, CNRS, 13288 Marseille, France.
| | - Bernard Malissen
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université, INSERM, CNRS, 13288 Marseille, France; Centre d'Immunophénomique, Aix Marseille Université, INSERM, CNRS, 13288 Marseille, France.
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13
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Carpentier S, Vu Manh TP, Chelbi R, Henri S, Malissen B, Haniffa M, Ginhoux F, Dalod M. Comparative genomics analysis of mononuclear phagocyte subsets confirms homology between lymphoid tissue-resident and dermal XCR1(+) DCs in mouse and human and distinguishes them from Langerhans cells. J Immunol Methods 2016; 432:35-49. [PMID: 26966045 PMCID: PMC4859332 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2016.02.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Revised: 02/01/2016] [Accepted: 02/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DC) are mononuclear phagocytes which exhibit a branching (dendritic) morphology and excel at naïve T cell activation. DC encompass several subsets initially identified by their expression of cell surface molecules and later shown to possess distinct functions. DC subset differentiation is orchestrated by transcription factors, growth factors and cytokines. Identifying DC subsets is challenging as very few cell surface molecules are uniquely expressed on any one of these cell populations. There is no standard consensus to identify mononuclear phagocyte subsets; varying antigens are employed depending on the tissue and animal species studied and between laboratories. This has led to confusion in how to accurately define and classify DCs across tissues and between species. Here we report a comparative genomics strategy that enables universal definition of DC and other mononuclear phagocyte subsets across species. We performed a meta-analysis of several public datasets of human and mouse mononuclear phagocyte subsets isolated from blood, spleen, skin or cutaneous lymph nodes, including by using a novel and user friendly software, BubbleGUM, which generates and integrates gene signatures for high throughput gene set enrichment analysis. This analysis demonstrates the equivalence between human and mouse skin XCR1(+) DCs, and between mouse and human Langerhans cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Carpentier
- Mi-mAbs (C/O Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy), F-13009 Marseille, France
| | - Thien-Phong Vu Manh
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université UM2, Inserm, U1104, CNRS UMR7280, F-13288 Marseille Cedex 09, France
| | - Rabie Chelbi
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université UM2, Inserm, U1104, CNRS UMR7280, F-13288 Marseille Cedex 09, France
| | - Sandrine Henri
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université UM2, Inserm, U1104, CNRS UMR7280, F-13288 Marseille Cedex 09, France
| | - Bernard Malissen
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université UM2, Inserm, U1104, CNRS UMR7280, F-13288 Marseille Cedex 09, France
| | - Muzlifah Haniffa
- Human Dendritic Cell Laboratory, Institute of Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
| | - Florent Ginhoux
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore.
| | - Marc Dalod
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université UM2, Inserm, U1104, CNRS UMR7280, F-13288 Marseille Cedex 09, France.
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14
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Alexandre YO, Ghilas S, Sanchez C, Le Bon A, Crozat K, Dalod M. XCR1+ dendritic cells promote memory CD8+ T cell recall upon secondary infections with Listeria monocytogenes or certain viruses. J Exp Med 2015; 213:75-92. [PMID: 26694969 PMCID: PMC4710197 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20142350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2014] [Accepted: 11/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Alexandre et al. demonstrate the XCR1+ DCs are instrumental in memory CD8+ T cell responses to Listeria, VSV or vaccinia virus infection, but not CMV. Depending on the infection, robust memory CTL responses require cytokine- and chemokine-dependent cross-talk between XCR1+ DCs and NK cells or other IFN-γ–producing lymphocytes. Naive CD8+ T cell priming during tumor development or many primary infections requires cross-presentation by XCR1+ dendritic cells (DCs). Memory CD8+ T lymphocytes (mCTLs) harbor a lower activation threshold as compared with naive cells. However, whether their recall responses depend on XCR1+ DCs is unknown. By using a new mouse model allowing fluorescent tracking and conditional depletion of XCR1+ DCs, we demonstrate a differential requirement of these cells for mCTL recall during secondary infections by different pathogens. XCR1+ DCs were instrumental to promote this function upon secondary challenges with Listeria monocytogenes, vesicular stomatitis virus, or Vaccinia virus, but dispensable in the case of mouse cytomegalovirus. We deciphered how XCR1+ DCs promote mCTL recall upon secondary infections with Listeria. By visualizing for the first time the in vivo choreography of XCR1+ DCs, NK cells and mCTLs during secondary immune responses, and by neutralizing in vivo candidate molecules, we demonstrate that, very early after infection, mCTLs are activated, and attracted in a CXCR3-dependent manner, by NK cell–boosted, IL-12–, and CXCL9-producing XCR1+ DCs. Hence, depending on the infectious agent, strong recall of mCTLs during secondary challenges can require cytokine- and chemokine-dependent cross-talk with XCR1+ DCs and NK cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yannick O Alexandre
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université UM2, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, U1104, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR7280, 13288 Marseille, France
| | - Sonia Ghilas
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université UM2, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, U1104, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR7280, 13288 Marseille, France
| | - Cindy Sanchez
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université UM2, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, U1104, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR7280, 13288 Marseille, France
| | - Agnès Le Bon
- Institut Cochin, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, U1016, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR8104, Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 75014 Paris, France
| | - Karine Crozat
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université UM2, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, U1104, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR7280, 13288 Marseille, France
| | - Marc Dalod
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université UM2, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, U1104, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR7280, 13288 Marseille, France
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15
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Terhorst D, Chelbi R, Wohn C, Malosse C, Tamoutounour S, Jorquera A, Bajenoff M, Dalod M, Malissen B, Henri S. Dynamics and Transcriptomics of Skin Dendritic Cells and Macrophages in an Imiquimod-Induced, Biphasic Mouse Model of Psoriasis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 195:4953-61. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1500551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2015] [Accepted: 09/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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16
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Yoda A, Adelmant G, Tamburini J, Chapuy B, Shindoh N, Yoda Y, Weigert O, Kopp N, Wu SC, Kim SS, Liu H, Tivey T, Christie AL, Elpek KG, Card J, Gritsman K, Gotlib J, Deininger MW, Makishima H, Turley SJ, Javidi-Sharifi N, Maciejewski JP, Jaiswal S, Ebert BL, Rodig SJ, Tyner JW, Marto JA, Weinstock DM, Lane AA. Mutations in G protein β subunits promote transformation and kinase inhibitor resistance. Nat Med 2014; 21:71-5. [PMID: 25485910 PMCID: PMC4289115 DOI: 10.1038/nm.3751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2014] [Accepted: 10/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Activating mutations in genes encoding G protein α (Gα) subunits occur in 4-5% of all human cancers, but oncogenic alterations in Gβ subunits have not been defined. Here we demonstrate that recurrent mutations in the Gβ proteins GNB1 and GNB2 confer cytokine-independent growth and activate canonical G protein signaling. Multiple mutations in GNB1 affect the protein interface that binds Gα subunits as well as downstream effectors and disrupt Gα interactions with the Gβγ dimer. Different mutations in Gβ proteins clustered partly on the basis of lineage; for example, all 11 GNB1 K57 mutations were in myeloid neoplasms, and seven of eight GNB1 I80 mutations were in B cell neoplasms. Expression of patient-derived GNB1 variants in Cdkn2a-deficient mouse bone marrow followed by transplantation resulted in either myeloid or B cell malignancies. In vivo treatment with the dual PI3K-mTOR inhibitor BEZ235 suppressed GNB1-induced signaling and markedly increased survival. In several human tumors, mutations in the gene encoding GNB1 co-occurred with oncogenic kinase alterations, including the BCR-ABL fusion protein, the V617F substitution in JAK2 and the V600K substitution in BRAF. Coexpression of patient-derived GNB1 variants with these mutant kinases resulted in inhibitor resistance in each context. Thus, GNB1 and GNB2 alterations confer transformed and resistance phenotypes across a range of human tumors and may be targetable with inhibitors of G protein signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akinori Yoda
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Guillaume Adelmant
- 1] Department of Cancer Biology and Blais Proteomics Center, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA. [2] Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jerome Tamburini
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Bjoern Chapuy
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Nobuaki Shindoh
- 1] Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA. [2] Drug Discovery Research, Astellas Pharma Inc., Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Yuka Yoda
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Oliver Weigert
- Department of Medicine III, Campus Grosshadern, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, and Helmholtz Center, Munich, Germany
| | - Nadja Kopp
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Shuo-Chieh Wu
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Sunhee S Kim
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Huiyun Liu
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Trevor Tivey
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Amanda L Christie
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Kutlu G Elpek
- 1] Department of Cancer Immunology and AIDS, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA. [2] Jounce Therapeutics, Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Joseph Card
- Department of Cancer Biology and Blais Proteomics Center, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Kira Gritsman
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jason Gotlib
- Division of Hematology, Stanford Cancer Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Michael W Deininger
- Division of Hematology and Hematologic Malignancies, Huntsman Cancer Institute, The University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
| | - Hideki Makishima
- Department of Translational Hematology and Oncology Research, Taussig Cancer Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Shannon J Turley
- Department of Cancer Immunology and AIDS, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Nathalie Javidi-Sharifi
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Cancer Biology, Oregon Health and Science University, Knight Cancer Institute, Portland, Oregon, USA
| | - Jaroslaw P Maciejewski
- Department of Translational Hematology and Oncology Research, Taussig Cancer Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Siddhartha Jaiswal
- 1] Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA. [2] Division of Hematology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Benjamin L Ebert
- 1] Division of Hematology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA. [2] Broad Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Scott J Rodig
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jeffrey W Tyner
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Cancer Biology, Oregon Health and Science University, Knight Cancer Institute, Portland, Oregon, USA
| | - Jarrod A Marto
- 1] Department of Cancer Biology and Blais Proteomics Center, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA. [2] Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - David M Weinstock
- 1] Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA. [2] Broad Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Andrew A Lane
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Abstract
Immune cell populations in the skin are predominantly comprised of dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages. A lack of consensus regarding how to define these cell types has hampered research in this area. In this Review, we focus on recent advances that, based on ontogeny and global gene-expression profiles, have succeeded in discriminating DCs from macrophages in the skin. We discuss how these studies have enabled researchers to revisit the origin, diversity and T cell-stimulatory properties of these cells, and have led to unifying principles that extend across tissues and species. By aligning the DC and macrophage subsets that are found in mouse skin with those that are present in human skin, these studies also provide crucial information for developing intradermal vaccines and for managing inflammatory skin conditions.
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18
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A systems biology approach to the analysis of subset-specific responses to lipopolysaccharide in dendritic cells. PLoS One 2014; 9:e100613. [PMID: 24949855 PMCID: PMC4065045 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0100613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2013] [Accepted: 05/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are critical for regulating CD4 and CD8 T cell immunity, controlling Th1, Th2, and Th17 commitment, generating inducible Tregs, and mediating tolerance. It is believed that distinct DC subsets have evolved to control these different immune outcomes. However, how DC subsets mount different responses to inflammatory and/or tolerogenic signals in order to accomplish their divergent functions remains unclear. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) provides an excellent model for investigating responses in closely related splenic DC subsets, as all subsets express the LPS receptor TLR4 and respond to LPS in vitro. However, previous studies of the LPS-induced DC transcriptome have been performed only on mixed DC populations. Moreover, comparisons of the in vivo response of two closely related DC subsets to LPS stimulation have not been reported in the literature to date. We compared the transcriptomes of murine splenic CD8 and CD11b DC subsets after in vivo LPS stimulation, using RNA-Seq and systems biology approaches. We identified subset-specific gene signatures, which included multiple functional immune mediators unique to each subset. To explain the observed subset-specific differences, we used a network analysis approach. While both DC subsets used a conserved set of transcription factors and major signalling pathways, the subsets showed differential regulation of sets of genes that ‘fine-tune’ the network Hubs expressed in common. We propose a model in which signalling through common pathway components is ‘fine-tuned’ by transcriptional control of subset-specific modulators, thus allowing for distinct functional outcomes in closely related DC subsets. We extend this analysis to comparable datasets from the literature and confirm that our model can account for cell subset-specific responses to LPS stimulation in multiple subpopulations in mouse and man.
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19
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Hopp AK, Rupp A, Lukacs-Kornek V. Self-antigen presentation by dendritic cells in autoimmunity. Front Immunol 2014; 5:55. [PMID: 24592266 PMCID: PMC3923158 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2013] [Accepted: 01/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The operation of both central and peripheral tolerance ensures the prevention of autoimmune diseases. The maintenance of peripheral tolerance requires self-antigen presentation by professional antigen presenting cells (APCs). Dendritic cells (DCs) are considered as major APCs involved in this process. The current review discusses the role of DCs in autoimmune diseases, the various factors involved in the induction and maintenance of tolerogenic DC phenotype, and pinpoints their therapeutic capacity as well as potential novel targets for future clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann-Katrin Hopp
- Department of Medicine II, Saarland University Medical Center , Homburg , Germany
| | - Anne Rupp
- Department of Medicine II, Saarland University Medical Center , Homburg , Germany
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20
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Globisch T, Steiner N, Fülle L, Lukacs-Kornek V, Degrandi D, Dresing P, Alferink J, Lang R, Pfeffer K, Beyer M, Weighardt H, Kurts C, Ulas T, Schultze JL, Förster I. Cytokine-dependent regulation of dendritic cell differentiation in the splenic microenvironment. Eur J Immunol 2014; 44:500-10. [PMID: 24136200 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201343820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2013] [Revised: 09/02/2013] [Accepted: 09/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The DC-derived chemokine CCL17, a ligand of CCR4, has been shown to promote various inflammatory diseases such as atopic dermatitis, atherosclerosis, and inflammatory bowel disease. Under steady-state conditions, and even after systemic stimulation with LPS, CCL17 is not expressed in resident splenic DCs as opposed to CD8α⁻CD11b⁺ LN DCs, which produce large amounts of CCL17 in particular after maturation. Upon systemic NKT cell activation through α-galactosylceramide stimulation however, CCL17 can be upregulated in both CD8α⁻ and CD8α⁺ splenic DC subsets and enhances cross-presentation of exogenous antigens. Based on genome-wide expression profiling, we now show that splenic CD11b⁺ DCs are susceptible to IFN-γ-mediated suppression of CCL17, whereas LN CD11b⁺CCL17⁺ DCs downregulate the IFN-γR and are much less responsive to IFN-γ. Under inflammatory conditions, particularly in the absence of IFN-γ signaling in IFN-γRKO mice, CCL17 expression is strongly induced in a major proportion of splenic DCs by the action of GM-CSF in concert with IL-4. Our findings demonstrate that the local cytokine milieu and differential cytokine responsiveness of DC subsets regulate lymphoid organ specific immune responses at the level of chemokine expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa Globisch
- Department of Molecular Immunology, IUF - Leibniz Research Institute for Environmental Medicine, Düsseldorf, Germany; Immunology and Environment, Life and Medical Sciences (LIMES) Institute, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
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Tamoutounour S, Guilliams M, Montanana Sanchis F, Liu H, Terhorst D, Malosse C, Pollet E, Ardouin L, Luche H, Sanchez C, Dalod M, Malissen B, Henri S. Origins and functional specialization of macrophages and of conventional and monocyte-derived dendritic cells in mouse skin. Immunity 2013; 39:925-38. [PMID: 24184057 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2013.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 574] [Impact Index Per Article: 52.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2013] [Accepted: 10/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
In the skin, the lack of markers permitting the unambiguous identification of macrophages and of conventional and monocyte-derived dendritic cells (DCs) complicates understanding of their contribution to skin integrity and to immune responses. By combining CD64 and CCR2 staining, we successfully identified each of these cell types and studied their origin, transcriptomic signatures, and migratory and T cell stimulatory properties. We also analyzed the impact of microbiota on their development and their contribution to skin inflammation during contact hypersensitivity. Dermal macrophages had a unique scavenging role and were unable to migrate and activate T cells. Conventional dermal DCs excelled both at migrating and activating T cells. In the steady-state dermis, monocyte-derived DCs are continuously generated by extravasated Ly-6C(hi) monocytes. Their T cell stimulatory capacity combined with their poor migratory ability made them particularly suited to activate skin-tropic T cells. Therefore, a high degree of functional specialization occurs among the mononuclear phagocytes of the skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samira Tamoutounour
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy (CIML), UM2 Aix-Marseille Université, 13288 Marseille Cedex 9, France; INSERM U1104, 13288 Marseille Cedex 9, France; CNRS UMR7280, 13288 Marseille Cedex 9, France
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Sawai CM, Sisirak V, Ghosh HS, Hou EZ, Ceribelli M, Staudt LM, Reizis B. Transcription factor Runx2 controls the development and migration of plasmacytoid dendritic cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 210:2151-9. [PMID: 24101375 PMCID: PMC3804932 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20130443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Exit of mature pDCs from the bone marrow requires the transcription factor Runx2, in part via Runx2-driven expression of CCR5. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) rapidly produce type I interferon (IFN-I) in response to viruses and are essential for antiviral immune responses. Although related to classical DCs (cDCs) in their development and expression profile, pDCs possess many distinct features. Unlike cDCs, pDCs develop in the bone marrow (BM) and emerge into peripheral lymphoid organs and tissues as fully differentiated cells. We now report that pDCs specifically express Runx2, a Runt family transcription factor that is essential for bone development. pDCs in Runx2-deficient mice developed normally in the BM but were greatly reduced in the periphery. The defect was cell-intrinsic and was associated with the retention of mature Ly49Q+ pDCs in the BM. Runx2 was required for the expression of several pDC-enriched genes, including the chemokine receptors Ccr2 and Ccr5. Mature pDCs expressed high levels of Ccr5 at the cell surface, and Ccr5-deficient pDCs in a competitive setting were reduced in the periphery relative to the BM. Thus, Runx2 is required for the emergence of mature BM pDCs into the periphery, in a process that is partially dependent on Ccr5. These results establish Runx2 as a lineage-specific regulator of immune system development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine M Sawai
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032
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23
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Dendritic cell subtypes from lymph nodes and blood show contrasted gene expression programs upon Bluetongue virus infection. J Virol 2013; 87:9333-43. [PMID: 23785206 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00631-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Human and animal hemorrhagic viruses initially target dendritic cells (DCs). It has been proposed, but not documented, that both plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs) and conventional DCs (cDCs) may participate in the cytokine storm encountered in these infections. In order to evaluate the contribution of DCs in hemorrhagic virus pathogenesis, we performed a genome-wide expression analysis during infection by Bluetongue virus (BTV), a double-stranded RNA virus that induces hemorrhagic fever in sheep and initially infects cDCs. Both pDCs and cDCs accumulated in regional lymph nodes and spleen during BTV infection. The gene response profiles were performed at the onset of the disease and markedly differed with the DC subtypes and their lymphoid organ location. An integrative knowledge-based analysis revealed that blood pDCs displayed a gene signature related to activation of systemic inflammation and permeability of vasculature. In contrast, the gene profile of pDCs and cDCs in lymph nodes was oriented to inhibition of inflammation, whereas spleen cDCs did not show a clear functional orientation. These analyses indicate that tissue location and DC subtype affect the functional gene expression program induced by BTV and suggest the involvement of blood pDCs in the inflammation and plasma leakage/hemorrhage during BTV infection in the real natural host of the virus. These findings open the avenue to target DCs for therapeutic interventions in viral hemorrhagic diseases.
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Harman AN, Bye CR, Nasr N, Sandgren KJ, Kim M, Mercier SK, Botting RA, Lewin SR, Cunningham AL, Cameron PU. Identification of lineage relationships and novel markers of blood and skin human dendritic cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012. [PMID: 23183897 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1200779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The lineage relationships and fate of human dendritic cells (DCs) have significance for a number of diseases including HIV where both blood and tissue DCs may be infected. We used gene expression profiling of human monocyte and DC subpopulations sorted directly from blood and skin to define the lineage relationships. We also compared these with monocyte-derived DCs (MDDCs) and MUTZ3 Langerhans cells (LCs) to investigate their relevance as model skin DCs. Hierarchical clustering analysis showed that myeloid DCs clustered according to anatomical origin rather than putative lineage. Plasmacytoid DCs formed the most discrete cluster, but ex vivo myeloid cells formed separate clusters of cells both in blood and in skin. Separate and specific DC populations could be determined within skin, and the proportion of CD14(+) dermal DCs (DDCs) was reduced and CD1a(+) DDCs increased during culture, suggesting conversion to CD1a(+)-expressing cells in situ. This is consistent with origin of the CD1a(+) DDCs from a local precursor rather than directly from circulating blood DCs or monocyte precursors. Consistent with their use as model skin DCs, the in vitro-derived MDDC and MUTZ3 LC populations grouped within the skin DC cluster. MDDCs clustered most closely to CD14(+) DDCs; furthermore, common unique patterns of C-type lectin receptor expression were identified between these two cell types. MUTZ3 LCs, however, did not cluster closely with ex vivo-derived LCs. We identified differential expression of novel genes in monocyte and DC subsets including genes related to DC surface receptors (including C-type lectin receptors, TLRs, and galectins).
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew N Harman
- Westmead Millennium Institute, Westmead, New South Wales 2145, Australia
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25
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Satpathy AT, Wu X, Albring JC, Murphy KM. Re(de)fining the dendritic cell lineage. Nat Immunol 2012; 13:1145-54. [PMID: 23160217 DOI: 10.1038/ni.2467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 326] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2012] [Accepted: 09/27/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are essential mediators of innate and adaptive immune responses. Study of these critical cells has been complicated by their similarity to other hematopoietic lineages, particularly monocytes and macrophages. Progress has been made in three critical areas of DC biology: the characterization of lineage-restricted progenitors in the bone marrow, the identification of cytokines and transcription factors required during differentiation, and the development of genetic tools for the visualization and depletion of DCs in vivo. Collectively, these advances have clarified the nature of the DC lineage and have provided novel insights into their function during health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ansuman T Satpathy
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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26
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Moore AJ, Sarmiento J, Mohtashami M, Braunstein M, Zúñiga-Pflücker JC, Anderson MK. Transcriptional priming of intrathymic precursors for dendritic cell development. Development 2012; 139:373-84. [PMID: 22186727 DOI: 10.1242/dev.069344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Specialized dendritic cells (DCs) within the thymus are crucial for the deletion of autoreactive T cells. The question of whether these cells arise from intrathymic precursors with T-cell potential has been hotly debated, and the regulatory pathways and signals that direct their development remain unclear. Here, we compared the gene expression profiles of thymic DC subsets with those of four early thymic precursor subsets: early T-cell precursors (ETPs), double-negative 1c (DN1c), double-negative 1d (DN1d) and double-negative 1e (DN1e) subsets. We found that the DN1d subset expressed Spi-B, HEBCan, Ccr7 and Ccr4, similar to thymic plasmacytoid DCs, whereas the DN1e subset expressed Id2, Ccr7 and Ccr4, similar to thymic conventional DCs. The expression of Ccr7 and Ccr4 in DN1d and DN1e cells suggested that they might be able to migrate towards the medulla (low in Dll proteins) and away from the cortex (high in Dll proteins) where early T-cell development occurs. We therefore assessed the sensitivity of developing DC precursors to Dll-Notch signaling, and found that high levels of Dll1 or Dll4 were inhibitory to DC development, whereas medium levels of Dll4 allowed DC development but not myeloid development. To evaluate directly the lineage potential of the ETP, DN1d and DN1e subsets, we injected them into nonirradiated congenic hosts intrathymically or intravenously, and found that they were all able to form medullary DCs in vivo. Therefore, DN1d and DN1e cells are transcriptionally primed to home to the thymus, migrate into DC-permissive microenvironments and develop into medullary DCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda J Moore
- Sunnybrook Research Institute, Division of Biological Sciences, Toronto, Ontario, M4N 3M5, Canada
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