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Illuminating protist diversity in pitcher plants and bromeliad tanks. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0270913. [PMID: 35895712 PMCID: PMC9328516 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0270913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Many species of plants have evolved structures called phytotelmata that store water and trap detritus and prey. These structures house diverse communities of organisms, the inquiline microbiome, that aids breakdown of litter and prey. The invertebrate and bacterial food webs in these systems are well characterized, but less is known about microbial eukaryotic community dynamics. In this study we focus on microbes in the SAR clade (Stramenopila, Alveolata, Rhizaria) inhabiting phytotelmata. Using small subunit rDNA amplicon sequencing from repeated temporal and geographic samples of wild and cultivated plants across the Northeast U.S.A., we demonstrate that communities are variable within and between host plant type. Across habitats, communities from tropical bromeliads grown in a single room of a greenhouse were nearly as heterogeneous as wild pitcher plants spread across hundreds of kilometers. At the scale of pitcher plants in a single bog, analyses of samples from three time points suggest that seasonality is a major driver of protist community structure, with variable spring communities transitioning to more homogeneous communities that resemble the surrounding habitat. Our results indicate that protist communities in phytotelmata are variable, likely due to stochastic founder events and colonization/competition dynamics, leading to tremendous heterogeneity in inquiline microeukaryotic communities.
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Pristas P, Beck T, Piknova M, Gaperova S, Sebesta M, Gaper J. Intragenomic Variability of ITS Sequences in Bjerkandera adusta. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8070654. [PMID: 35887411 PMCID: PMC9319410 DOI: 10.3390/jof8070654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Revised: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Bjerkandera adusta is a species of common white rot polyporoid fungi found worldwide. Despite playing an important role in deadwood decay, the species strains are used in bioremediation due to its ability to degrade polycyclic hydrocarbons and some of them are important etiological agents of chronic coughs and are associated with lung inflammations. In our experiments, diversity within the species was investigated using molecular approaches and we found that sequence diversity seen at ITS sequence level is not due to cryptic speciation but to intragenomic variability of ITS sequences in this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Pristas
- Institute of Biology and Ecology, Pavol Josef Safarik University in Kosice, Srobarova 2, 04101 Kosice, Slovakia; (P.P.); (M.P.)
- Centre of Biosciences, Institute of Animal Physiology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Soltesovej 4–6, 04001 Kosice, Slovakia
| | - Terezia Beck
- Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Matej Bel University, Tajovskeho 40, 97401 Banska Bystrica, Slovakia;
- Correspondence:
| | - Maria Piknova
- Institute of Biology and Ecology, Pavol Josef Safarik University in Kosice, Srobarova 2, 04101 Kosice, Slovakia; (P.P.); (M.P.)
| | - Svetlana Gaperova
- Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Matej Bel University, Tajovskeho 40, 97401 Banska Bystrica, Slovakia;
| | | | - Jan Gaper
- Department of Biology and General Ecology, Faculty of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Technical University, T. G. Masaryka 24, 96053 Zvolen, Slovakia;
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Hsu YF, Yan J, Song Y, Zheng M. Sarracenia purpurea glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase 5 confers plant tolerance to high humidity in Arabidopsis thaliana. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2021; 173:1221-1229. [PMID: 34346074 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.13516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Suberin, as a lipid polyester barrier, limits the movement of gas, water, and solutes, and plays important roles in plant protection and growth. In this study, a CDS encoding glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase 5 (GPAT5) was cloned from Sarracenia purpurea to investigate the gene function. SpGPAT5 shares 72% identity and 80% similarity to AtGPAT5 that is required for suberin synthesis. Fluorol Yellow 088 staining showed that the S. purpurea pitcher (specific leaf) tube contained more suberin in the adaxial surface compared to the lid, and SpGPAT5 transcripts were detected in the pitcher. Previous reported Atgpat5-1 phenotypes were complemented with SpGPAT5 showing that the Atgpat5-1 seed coat had increased permeability of tetrazolium red and the mutant was sensitive to salt. We also found that SpGPAT5 was able to revert the hyperhydric phenotype of Atgpat5-1 under high humidity. Thus, this study suggests that SpGPAT5 can functionally replace AtGPAT5 and contributes to plant tolerance to high humidity, which maybe assist in understanding the role of suberin-associated waxes in S. purpurea pitchers for water retention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Feng Hsu
- School of Life Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jiawen Yan
- School of Life Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yu Song
- School of Life Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Min Zheng
- School of Life Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
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Spatial and temporal differences in the community structure of endophytic fungi in the carnivorous plant Pinguicula moranensis (Lentibulariaceae). FUNGAL ECOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funeco.2021.101087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Barberis L, Michalet S, Piola F, Binet P. Root fungal endophytes: identity, phylogeny and roles in plant tolerance to metal stress. Fungal Biol 2020; 125:326-345. [PMID: 33766311 DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2020.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Metal trace elements accumulate in soils mainly because of anthropic activities, leading living organisms to develop strategies to handle metal toxicity. Plants often associate with root endophytic fungi, including nonmycorrhizal fungi, and some of these organisms are associated with metal tolerance. The lack of synthetic analyses of plant-endophyte-metal tripartite systems and the scant consideration for taxonomy led to this review aiming (1) to inventory non-mycorrhizal root fungal endophytes described with respect to their taxonomic diversity and (2) to determine the mutualistic roles of these plant-fungus associations under metal stress. More than 1500 species in 100 orders (mainly Hypocreales and Pleosporales) were reported from a wide variety of environments and hosts. Most reported endophytes had a positive effect on their host under metal stress, but with various effects on metal uptake or translocation and no clear taxonomic consistency. Future research considering the functional patterns and dynamics of these associations is thus encouraged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise Barberis
- Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, ENTPE, UMR5023 LEHNA, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Serge Michalet
- Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5557 Écologie microbienne, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Florence Piola
- Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, ENTPE, UMR5023 LEHNA, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Philippe Binet
- Université de Bourgogne-Franche-Comté, CNRS-UFC, UMR6249 Chrono-environnement, Montbéliard, France.
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Dkhar J, Bhaskar YK, Lynn A, Pareek A. Pitchers of Nepenthes khasiana express several digestive-enzyme encoding genes, harbor mostly fungi and probably evolved through changes in the expression of leaf polarity genes. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2020; 20:524. [PMID: 33203377 PMCID: PMC7672872 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-020-02663-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A structural phenomenon seen in certain lineages of angiosperms that has captivated many scholars including Charles Darwin is the evolution of plant carnivory. Evidently, these structural features collectively termed carnivorous syndrome, evolved to aid nutritional acquisition from attracted, captured and digested prey. We now understand why plant carnivory evolved but how carnivorous plants acquired these attributes remains a mystery. In an attempt to understand the evolution of Nepenthes pitcher and to shed more light on its role in prey digestion, we analyzed the transcriptome data of the highly specialized Nepenthes khasiana leaf comprising the leaf base lamina, tendril and the different parts/zones of the pitcher tube viz. digestive zone, waxy zone and lid. RESULTS In total, we generated around 262 million high-quality Illumina reads. Reads were pooled, normalized and de novo assembled to generate a reference transcriptome of about 412,224 transcripts. We then estimated transcript abundance along the N. khasiana leaf by mapping individual reads from each part/zone to the reference transcriptome. Correlation-based hierarchical clustering analysis of 27,208 commonly expressed genes indicated functional relationship and similar cellular processes underlying the development of the leaf base and the pitcher, thereby implying that the Nepenthes pitcher is indeed a modified leaf. From a list of 2386 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), we identified transcripts encoding key enzymes involved in prey digestion and protection against pathogen attack, some of which are expressed at high levels in the digestive zone. Interestingly, many of these enzyme-encoding genes are also expressed in the unopened N. khasiana pitcher. Transcripts showing homology to both bacteria and fungi were also detected; and in the digestive zone, fungi are more predominant as compared to bacteria. Taking cues from histology and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) photomicrographs, we found altered expressions of key regulatory genes involved in leaf development. Of particular interest, the expression of class III HOMEODOMAIN-LEUCINE ZIPPER (HD-ZIPIII) and ARGONAUTE (AGO) genes were upregulated in the tendril. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that N. khasiana pitchers employ a wide range of enzymes for prey digestion and plant defense, harbor microbes and probably evolved through altered expression of leaf polarity genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy Dkhar
- Stress Physiology and Molecular Biology Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067 India
- Agrotechnology Division, CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh 176061 India
| | - Yogendra Kumar Bhaskar
- School of Computational and Integrative Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067 India
| | - Andrew Lynn
- School of Computational and Integrative Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067 India
| | - Ashwani Pareek
- Stress Physiology and Molecular Biology Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067 India
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Adongbede EM, Jaiswal YS, Davis SS, Randolph PD, Huo LN, Williams LL. Antioxidant and antibacterial activity of Trametes polyzona (Pers.) Justo. Food Sci Biotechnol 2020; 29:27-33. [PMID: 31976124 DOI: 10.1007/s10068-019-00642-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2019] [Revised: 05/14/2019] [Accepted: 06/07/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Polypores are cosmopolitan mushrooms, widely investigated for their beneficial properties in combatting multidrug resistant pathogens. The present study focuses on the need for new, naturally sourced antimicrobial and antioxidant compounds from mushrooms. The antioxidant and antibacterial activity of the phenolic extract of strains of Trametes polyzona (Pers.) Justo, were investigated. Strains of T. polyzona were analyzed for total phenolic content, Trolox antioxidant equivalent, DPPH radical scavenging and antibacterial activities. The amplification of the ribosomal DNA-ITS fragments from DNA of selected mushrooms was carried out using ITS1 and ITS4 primers. The antibacterial activity of phenolic extracts of T. polyzona was comparable to the antibiotics, ceftazidime and erythromycin. T. polyzona extracts inhibited the growth of the different strains of K. pneumoniae, E. coli, S. aureus, and S. enterica tested in this study. The results of the study demonstrate that, T. polyzona can be a potential source of antimicrobial and antioxidant compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yogini S Jaiswal
- 2Center for Excellence in Post Harvest Technologies, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, 500 Laureate Way, Kannapolis, NC 2808 USA
| | - Shurrita S Davis
- 2Center for Excellence in Post Harvest Technologies, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, 500 Laureate Way, Kannapolis, NC 2808 USA
| | - Priscilla D Randolph
- 2Center for Excellence in Post Harvest Technologies, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, 500 Laureate Way, Kannapolis, NC 2808 USA
| | - Li-Ni Huo
- 3College of Pharmacy, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanning, 530222 China
| | - Leonard L Williams
- 2Center for Excellence in Post Harvest Technologies, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, 500 Laureate Way, Kannapolis, NC 2808 USA
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Septiana E, Sukarno N, Sukarno, Simanjuntak P. Endophytic Fungi Associated With Turmeric ( Curcuma longa L.) Can Inhibit Histamine-Forming Bacteria in Fish. HAYATI JOURNAL OF BIOSCIENCES 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.hjb.2017.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
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Kanokratana P, Mhuanthong W, Laothanachareon T, Tangphatsornruang S, Eurwilaichitr L, Kruetreepradit T, Mayes S, Champreda V. Comparative Study of Bacterial Communities in Nepenthes Pitchers and Their Correlation to Species and Fluid Acidity. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2016; 72:381-93. [PMID: 27287538 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-016-0798-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Accepted: 05/31/2016] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Pitchers are specialized digestive organs of carnivorous plants which evolved for trapping prey and represent a unique environment harboring hidden diversity of unexplored microbes forming transient hydrolytic microcosms. In this study, the diversity of bacterial communities in the pitcher fluids of seven local Nepenthes found in Thailand was assessed by tagged 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene amplicon sequencing on an Ion PGM™ platform. A total of 1,101,000 filtered sequences were obtained which were taxonomically classified into 20 phyla, 48 classes, 72 orders, 153 families, and 442 genera while the remainder (1.43 %) could not be assigned to any existing taxa. Proteobacteria represented the predominant members in closed pitchers and more diversified bacterial taxa particularly Bacteriodetes and Actinobacteria, showed increasing abundance in open pitchers containing insect bodies. Principal coordinate analysis revealed that distribution of bacterial taxa was not significantly related to the Nepenthes species but strongly correlated to the pH of the pitcher fluids (pH 1.7-6.7). Acidicella was a highly dominant bacterial genus in acidic pitcher fluids while Dyella and Mycobacterium were also common genera in most pitchers. A unique microbial community structure was found in Nepenthes ampullaria which could reflect their adaptation to digest leaf litter, in addition to insect prey. The work revealed the highly unexplored nature of bacterial microcosms in Nepenthes pitcher fluids and provides insights into their community structure in this unique ecological system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pattanop Kanokratana
- Enzyme Technology Laboratory, Bioresources Technology Unit, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Paholyothin Road, Khlong Luang, Pathumthani, 12120, Thailand.
| | - Wuttichai Mhuanthong
- Enzyme Technology Laboratory, Bioresources Technology Unit, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Paholyothin Road, Khlong Luang, Pathumthani, 12120, Thailand
| | - Thanaporn Laothanachareon
- Enzyme Technology Laboratory, Bioresources Technology Unit, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Paholyothin Road, Khlong Luang, Pathumthani, 12120, Thailand
| | - Sithichoke Tangphatsornruang
- Genome Institute, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Thailand Science Park, Khlong Luang, Pathumthani, 12120, Thailand
| | - Lily Eurwilaichitr
- Enzyme Technology Laboratory, Bioresources Technology Unit, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Paholyothin Road, Khlong Luang, Pathumthani, 12120, Thailand
| | - Trongtham Kruetreepradit
- Southeast Asian Nepenthes Study and Research Foundation (SEANSRF), PO Box 36, Lamai, Koh Samui, Suratthani, 84310, Thailand
| | - Shawn Mayes
- Southeast Asian Nepenthes Study and Research Foundation (SEANSRF), PO Box 36, Lamai, Koh Samui, Suratthani, 84310, Thailand
| | - Verawat Champreda
- Enzyme Technology Laboratory, Bioresources Technology Unit, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), 113 Thailand Science Park, Paholyothin Road, Khlong Luang, Pathumthani, 12120, Thailand
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Higginbotham S, Wong WR, Linington RG, Spadafora C, Iturrado L, Arnold AE. Sloth hair as a novel source of fungi with potent anti-parasitic, anti-cancer and anti-bacterial bioactivity. PLoS One 2014; 9:e84549. [PMID: 24454729 PMCID: PMC3893167 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0084549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2013] [Accepted: 11/15/2013] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The extraordinary biological diversity of tropical forests harbors a rich chemical diversity with enormous potential as a source of novel bioactive compounds. Of particular interest are new environments for microbial discovery. Sloths – arboreal mammals commonly found in the lowland forests of Panama – carry a wide variety of micro- and macro-organisms on their coarse outer hair. Here we report for the first time the isolation of diverse and bioactive strains of fungi from sloth hair, and their taxonomic placement. Eighty-four isolates of fungi were obtained in culture from the surface of hair that was collected from living three-toed sloths (Bradypus variegatus, Bradypodidae) in Soberanía National Park, Republic of Panama. Phylogenetic analyses revealed a diverse group of Ascomycota belonging to 28 distinct operational taxonomic units (OTUs), several of which are divergent from previously known taxa. Seventy-four isolates were cultivated in liquid broth and crude extracts were tested for bioactivity in vitro. We found a broad range of activities against strains of the parasites that cause malaria (Plasmodium falciparum) and Chagas disease (Trypanosoma cruzi), and against the human breast cancer cell line MCF-7. Fifty fungal extracts were tested for antibacterial activity in a new antibiotic profile screen called BioMAP; of these, 20 were active against at least one bacterial strain, and one had an unusual pattern of bioactivity against Gram-negative bacteria that suggests a potentially new mode of action. Together our results reveal the importance of exploring novel environments for bioactive fungi, and demonstrate for the first time the taxonomic composition and bioactivity of fungi from sloth hair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Higginbotham
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama, Republic of Panama
- * E-mail:
| | - Weng Ruh Wong
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California, United States of America
| | - Roger G. Linington
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California, United States of America
| | - Carmenza Spadafora
- Instituto de Investigaciones Científicas y Servicios de Alta Tecnología, Panama, Republic of Panama
| | - Liliana Iturrado
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama, Republic of Panama
| | - A. Elizabeth Arnold
- School of Plant Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
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Renner T, Specht CD. Inside the trap: gland morphologies, digestive enzymes, and the evolution of plant carnivory in the Caryophyllales. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2013; 16:436-42. [PMID: 23830995 PMCID: PMC3820484 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2013.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2013] [Revised: 06/13/2013] [Accepted: 06/13/2013] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
The digestion of prey by carnivorous plants is determined in part by suites of enzymes that are associated with morphologically and anatomically diverse trapping mechanisms. Chitinases represent a group of enzymes known to be integral to effective plant carnivory. In non-carnivorous plants, chitinases commonly act as pathogenesis-related proteins, which are either induced in response to insect herbivory and fungal elicitors, or constitutively expressed in tissues vulnerable to attack. In the Caryophyllales carnivorous plant lineage, multiple classes of chitinases are likely involved in both pathogenic response and digestion of prey items. We review what is currently known about trap morphologies, provide an examination of the diversity, roles, and evolution of chitinases, and examine how herbivore and pathogen defense mechanisms may have been coopted for plant carnivory in the Caryophyllales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanya Renner
- Center for Insect Science and Department of Entomology, University of Arizona, United States.
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Delaye L, García-Guzmán G, Heil M. Endophytes versus biotrophic and necrotrophic pathogens—are fungal lifestyles evolutionarily stable traits? FUNGAL DIVERS 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s13225-013-0240-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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Buch F, Rott M, Rottloff S, Paetz C, Hilke I, Raessler M, Mithöfer A. Secreted pitfall-trap fluid of carnivorous Nepenthes plants is unsuitable for microbial growth. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2013; 111:375-83. [PMID: 23264234 PMCID: PMC3579442 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcs287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2012] [Accepted: 11/15/2012] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Carnivorous plants of the genus Nepenthes possess modified leaves that form pitfall traps in order to capture prey, mainly arthropods, to make additional nutrients available for the plant. These pitchers contain a digestive fluid due to the presence of hydrolytic enzymes. In this study, the composition of the digestive fluid was further analysed with regard to mineral nutrients and low molecular-weight compounds. A potential contribution of microbes to the composition of pitcher fluid was investigated. METHODS Fluids from closed pitchers were harvested and analysed for mineral nutrients using analytical techniques based on ion-chromatography and inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy. Secondary metabolites were identified by a combination of LC-MS and NMR. The presence of bacteria in the pitcher fluid was investigated by PCR of 16S-rRNA genes. Growth analyses of bacteria and yeast were performed in vitro with harvested pitcher fluid and in vivo within pitchers with injected microbes. KEY RESULTS The pitcher fluid from closed pitchers was found to be primarily an approx. 25-mm KCl solution, which is free of bacteria and unsuitable for microbial growth probably due to the lack of essential mineral nutrients such as phosphate and inorganic nitrogen. The fluid also contained antimicrobial naphthoquinones, plumbagin and 7-methyl-juglone, and defensive proteins such as the thaumatin-like protein. Challenging with bacteria or yeast caused bactericide as well as fungistatic properties in the fluid. Our results reveal that Nepenthes pitcher fluids represent a dynamic system that is able to react to the presence of microbes. CONCLUSIONS The secreted liquid of closed and freshly opened Nepenthes pitchers is exclusively plant-derived. It is unsuitable to serve as an environment for microbial growth. Thus, Nepenthes plants can avoid and control, at least to some extent, the microbial colonization of their pitfall traps and, thereby, reduce the need to vie with microbes for the prey-derived nutrients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Buch
- Department Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Matthias Rott
- Department Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Sandy Rottloff
- Department Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Christian Paetz
- Biosynthesis and NMR, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Ines Hilke
- Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry, Hans-Knöll-Straße 10, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Michael Raessler
- Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry, Hans-Knöll-Straße 10, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Axel Mithöfer
- Department Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, 07745 Jena, Germany
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