Triggering of the dsRNA sensors TLR3, MDA5, and RIG-I induces CD55 expression in synovial fibroblasts

Differential TLR-ERK1/2 activity promotes viral ssRNA and dsRNA mimic-induced dysregulated immunity in macrophages

RNA virus induced excessive inflammation and impaired antiviral interferon (IFN-I) responses are associated with severe disease. This innate immune response, also referred to as 'dysregulated immunity,' is caused by viral single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) and double-stranded-RNA (dsRNA) mediated exuberant inflammation and viral protein-induced IFN antagonism. However, key host factors and the underlying mechanism driving viral RNA-mediated dysregulated immunity are poorly defined. Here, using viral ssRNA and dsRNA mimics, which activate toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7) and TLR3, respectively, we evaluated the role of viral RNAs in causing dysregulated immunity. We show that murine bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) stimulated with TLR3 and TLR7 agonists induce differential inflammatory and antiviral cytokine response. TLR7 activation triggered a robust inflammatory cytokine/chemokine induction compared to TLR3 activation, whereas TLR3 stimulation induced significantly increased IFN/IFN stimulated gene (ISG) response relative to TLR7 activation. To define the mechanistic basis for dysregulated immunity, we examined cell-surface and endosomal TLR levels and downstream mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) activation. We identified a significantly higher cell-surface and endosomal TLR7 expression compared to TLR3, which further correlated with early and robust MAPK (pERK1/2 and p-P38) and NF-kB activation in TLR7-stimulated macrophages. Furthermore, blocking EKR1/2, p38, and NF-kB activity reduced TLR3/7-induced inflammatory cytokine/chemokine levels, whereas only ERK1/2 inhibition enhanced viral RNA-mimic-induced IFN/ISG responses. Collectively, our results illustrate that high cell surface and endosomal TLR7 expression and robust ERK1/2 activation drive viral ssRNA mimic-induced excessive inflammatory and reduced IFN/ISG responses, and blocking ERK1/2 activity would mitigate viral-RNA/TLR-induced dysregulated immunity.

Decay-Accelerating Factor Differentially Associates With Complement-Mediated Damage in Synovium After Meniscus Tear as Compared to Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury

We have reported that anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury leads to the differential dysregulation of the complement system in the synovium as compared to meniscus tear (MT) and proposed this as a mechanism for a greater post-injury prevalence of post traumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA). To explore additional roles of complement proteins and regulators, we determined the presence of decay-accelerating factor (DAF), C5b, and membrane attack complexes (MACs, C5b-9) in discarded surgical synovial tissue (DSST) collected during arthroscopic ACL reconstructive surgery, MT-related meniscectomy, osteoarthritis (OA)-related knee replacement surgery and normal controls. Multiplexed immunohistochemistry was used to detect and quantify complement proteins. To explore the involvement of body mass index (BMI), after these 2 injuries, we examined correlations among DAF, C5b, MAC and BMI. Using these approaches, we found that synovial cells after ACL injury expressed a significantly lower level of DAF as compared to MT (p<0.049). In contrast, C5b staining synovial cells were significantly higher after ACL injury (p<0.0009) and in OA DSST (p<0.039) compared to MT. Interestingly, there were significantly positive correlations between DAF & C5b (r=0.75, p<0.018) and DAF & C5b (r=0.64 p<0.022) after ACL injury and MT, respectively. The data support that DAF, which should normally dampen C5b deposition due to its regulatory activities on C3/C5 convertases, does not appear to exhibit that function in inflamed synovia following either ACL injury or MT. Ineffective DAF regulation may be an additional mechanism by which relatively uncontrolled complement activation damages tissue in these injury states.

ASIC1a promotes the proliferation of synovial fibroblasts via the ERK/MAPK pathway

Synovial hyperplasia, a profound alteration in the structure of synovial tissue, is the basis for cumulative joint destruction in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). It is generally accepted that controlling synovial hyperplasia can delay the progression of RA. As one of the most intensively studied isoforms of acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs), ASIC1a contributes to various physiopathologic conditions, including RA, due to its unique property of being permeable to Ca2+. However, the role and the regulatory mechanisms of ASIC1a in synovial hyperplasia are poorly understood. Here, rats induced with adjuvant arthritis (AA) and human primary synovial fibroblasts were used in vivo and in vitro to investigate the role of ASIC1a in the proliferation of RA synovial fibroblasts (RASFs). The results show that the expression of ASIC1a was significantly increased in synovial tissues and RASFs obtained from patients with RA as well as in the synovium of rats with AA. Moreover, extracellular acidification improved the ability of RASFs colony formation and increased the expression of proliferation cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and Ki67, which was abrogated by the specific ASIC1a inhibitor psalmotoxin-1 (PcTX-1) or ASIC1a-short hairpin RNA (ASIC1a-shRNA), suggesting that extracellular acidification promotes the proliferation of RASFs by activating ASIC1a. In addition, the activation of c-Raf and extracellular signal-regulated protein kinases (ERKs) signaling was blocked with PcTX-1 or ASIC1a-shRNA and the proliferation of RASFs was further inhibited by the ERK inhibitor (U0126), indicating that ERK/MAPK signaling contributes to the proliferation process of RASFs promoted by the activation of ASIC1a. These findings gave us an insight into the role of ASIC1a in the proliferation of RASFs, which may provide solid foundation for ASIC1a as a potential target in the treatment of RA.

TLRs Play Crucial Roles in Regulating RA Synoviocyte

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune inflammatory disease comparing the inflammation of synovium. Macrophage-like synoviocytes and fibroblast-like synoviocytes (synoviocytes) are crucial ingredients of synovium. Therein, a lot of research has focused on synoviocytes. Researches demonstrated that TLR1, TLR2, TLR3, TLR4, TLR5, TLR6 TLR7 and TLR9 are expressed in synoviocyte. Additionally, the expression of TLR2, TLR3, TLR4 and TLR5 is increased in RA synoviocyte. In this paper, we review the exact role of TLR2, TLR3, TLR4 and TLR5 participate in regulating the production of inflammatory factors in RA synoviocyte. Furthermore, we discuss the role of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), MicroRNA, Monome of Chinese herb and other cells (Monocyte and T cell) influence the function of synoviocyte by regulating TLRs. The activation of toll-like receptors (TLRs) in synoviocyte leads to the aggravation of arthritis, comparing with angiogenesis and bone destruction. Above all, TLRs are promising targets for managing RA.

Insight into the molecular function and transcriptional regulation of activator protein 1 (AP-1) components c-Jun/c-Fos ortholog in red lip mullet (Liza haematocheila)

The transcription factor, activator protein-1 (AP-1), is a dimeric protein and a downstream member of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway. It regulates a wide array of functions including, cell proliferation, survival, differentiation, response to UV-irradiation, immune responses, and inflammatory conditions. AP-1 belongs to the basic leucine zipper (bZIP) protein family, which consists of members from Jun, Fos, Maf, and ATF subfamilies. In the present study, c-Jun and c-Fos homologs were identified from a transcriptome database of Liza haematocheila and designated as Lhc-Jun and Lhc-Fos. In both sequences, the signature bZIP domain was identified and also the DNA binding sites, dimerization sites, as well as the phosphorylation sites, were found to be highly conserved through evolution. Tissue distribution analysis revealed that both Lhc-Jun and Lhc-Fos transcripts were ubiquitously expressed in all examined tissues of healthy mullets. In order to determine the transcriptional modulations of Lhc-Jun and Lhc-Fos, challenge experiments were carried out using LPS, poly I:C, and L. garvieae. The qRT-PCR analysis revealed significant upregulation of Lhc-Jun and Lhc-Fos in blood, gill, liver, and spleen. This is the first study that explores the correlation between UV-irradiation and AP-1 ortholog expression in teleosts. Also, this is the first time that the functional characterization of the teleost c-Fos ortholog has been carried out. Sub-cellular localization of Lhc-Jun and Lhc-Fos was observed in the nucleus. AP-1-Luc reporter assays revealed significant higher luciferase activities in both Lhc-Jun and Lhc-Fos proteins compared to mock controls. These results strongly suggest that Lhc-Jun and Lhc-Fos might play a significant role in Liza haematocheila immunity by regulating AP-1 promoter sequences in immune and stress-related genes.

Region-specific innate antiviral responses of the human epididymis

Viral infections of the epididymis are associated with epididymitis, which damages the epithelium and impairs fertility. We showed previously that innate immune response genes were differentially expressed in the corpus and cauda region of the human epididymis in comparison to the caput. Here we investigate the antiviral defense response mechanisms of human epididymis epithelial (HEE) cells. Toll-like receptor (TLR) 3 and retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I)-like receptors (RLRs) are enriched in HEE cells from the corpus and cauda region. These HEE cells show an enhanced response to antiviral ligands (poly(I:C) and HSV-60), as shown by increased IFN-β mRNA expression and IFN-β secretion. Nuclear translocation of phosphorylated p65 occurs after poly(I:C) exposure. In addition, paired box 2 (PAX2), which was implicated in regulating antiviral response pathways, is required for basal expression of the DNA sensor, Z-DNA binding protein (ZBP1) and type I interferon, in caput but not in cauda cells.

Immunomodulatory drug methotrexate used to treat patients with chronic inflammatory rheumatisms post-chikungunya does not impair the synovial antiviral and bone repair responses

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is a mosquito-transmitted RNA alphavirus causing major outbreaks of infectious chronic inflammatory rheumatisms (CIR). Recently, methotrexate (MTX), a disease modifying anti-rheumatic drug has been used successfully to treat patients suffering from rheumatoid-like arthritis post-CHIK but its immunomodulatory activity in the context of viral persistence has been a matter of concerns. We herein used a model of primary human synovial fibroblasts (HSF) and the synthetic molecule polyriboinosinic:polyribocytidylic acid (PIC) to mimic chronic infectious settings in the joints of CHIKV infected patients. The innate antiviral immune and inflammatory responses were investigated in response to MTX used at the therapeutic concentration of 1 μM. We found that MTX did not affect cellular viability as indicated by the LDH release assay. By quantitative RT-PCR, we observed that HSF responded robustly to PIC by increasing ISG15 and IFNβ mRNA levels. Furthermore, PIC upregulated the mRNA expression of two of the major pattern recognition receptors, RIG-I and MDA5 involved in the innate immune detection of viral RNA. MTX did not impact the antiviral response of PIC on ISG15, IFNβ, RIG-I and MDA5 mRNA expressions. MTX alone or combined with PIC did not affect the expression of proinflammatory CCL2 and CXCL8 chemokines. PIC strongly upregulated the mRNA and protein expression of osteoclastogenic factors (IL-6, GM-CSF but not RANKL). Critically, MTX treatment alone or combined with PIC did not affect the expression of all three tested osteoclastogenic cytokines. We found that MTX alone did not increase the capacity of CHIKV to infect and replicate in HSF. In conclusion, our study argues for a beneficial effect of MTX to treat CIR post-CHIKV given that it does not critically impact the antiviral, the proinflammatory and the bone tissue remodeling responses of synovial cells.

Chikungunya is a mosquito-borne virus (CHIKV) and has been incriminated in the development of arthralgia (pain of the joint) and arthritis particularly in elderly patients. Methotrexate (MTX) has been used widely to effectively treat these chronic rheumatic symptoms. Using a model of primary human joint fibroblasts (HSF), we investigated the capacity of the MTX immunosuppressive drug to affect the immune antiviral and inflammatory responses essential to clear the virus while allowing bone tissue repair. This study is important given that CHIKV and its RNA were shown to persist in the joint for months to years post infection and leading to injuries through ill-characterized mechanisms. The molecule PIC was used to mimic the effect of viral RNA. Interestingly, we found that MTX did not affect the expression of several proinflammatory and bone repair factors by HSF. Remarkably, MTX did not also impair the antiviral response of synovial fibroblasts. Our study revealed for the first time that MTX treatment should be considered as safe even in the context of viral persistence associated with chronic inflammation. MTX will not affect the capacity of the synovial tissue to maintain antiviral mechanism, to control inflammation and to promote bone tissue repair.

TLR3 Ligand Poly(I:C) Exerts Distinct Actions in Synovial Fibroblasts When Delivered by Extracellular Vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EV) can modulate the responses of cells to toll-like receptor (TLR) ligation; conversely, TLR ligands such as double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) can enhance the release of EV and influence of the composition and functions of EV cargos. Inflamed synovial joints in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) are rich in EV and extracellular RNA; besides, RNA released from necrotic synovial fluid cells can activate the TLR3 signaling in synovial fibroblasts (SFs) from patients with RA. Since EV occur prominently in synovial joints in RA and may contribute to the pathogenesis, we questioned whether EV can interact with dsRNA, a TLR3 ligand, and modify its actions in arthritis. We have used as model the effects on RA SFs, of EV released from monocyte U937 cells and peripheral blood mononuclear cells upon stimulation with Poly(I:C), a synthetic analog of dsRNA. We show that EV released from unstimulated cells and Poly(I:C)-stimulated U937 cells [Poly(I:C) EV] differ in size but bind similar amounts of Annexin V and express comparable levels of MAC-1, the receptor for dsRNA, on the vesicular membranes. Specifically, Poly(I:C) EV contain or associate with Poly(I:C) and at least partially protect Poly(I:C) from RNAse III degradation. Poly(I:C) EV shuttle Poly(I:C) to SFs and reproduce the proinflammatory and antiviral gene responses of SFs to direct stimulation with Poly(I:C). Poly(I:C) EV, however, halt the death receptor-induced apoptosis in SFs, thereby inverting the proapoptotic nature of Poly(I:C). These prosurvival effects sharply contrast with the high toxicity of cationic liposome-delivered Poly(I:C) and may reflect the route of Poly(I:C) delivery via EV or the fine-tuning of Poly(I:C) actions by molecular cargo in EV. The demonstration that EV may safeguard extracellular dsRNA and allow dsRNA to exert antiapoptotic effects on SFs highlights the potential of EV to amplify the pathogenicity of dsRNA in arthritis beyond inflammation (by concurrently enhancing the expansion of the invasive synovial stroma).

Stromal cell markers are differentially expressed in the synovial tissue of patients with early arthritis

Introduction

Previous studies have shown increased expression of stromal markers in synovial tissue (ST) of patients with established rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Here, ST expression of stromal markers in early arthritis in relationship to diagnosis and prognostic outcome was studied.

Methods

ST from 56 patients included in two different early arthritis cohorts and 7 non-inflammatory controls was analysed using immunofluorescence to detect stromal markers CD55, CD248, fibroblast activation protein (FAP) and podoplanin. Diagnostic classification (gout, psoriatic arthritis, unclassified arthritis (UA), parvovirus associated arthritis, reactive arthritis and RA), disease outcome (resolving vs persistent) and clinical variables were determined at baseline and after follow-up, and related to the expression of stromal markers.

Results

We observed expression of all stromal markers in ST of early arthritis patients, independent of diagnosis or prognostic outcome. Synovial expression of FAP was significantly higher in patients developing early RA compared to other diagnostic groups and non-inflammatory controls. In RA FAP protein was expressed in both lining and sublining layers. Podoplanin expression was higher in all early inflammatory arthritis patients than controls, but did not differentiate diagnostic outcomes. Stromal marker expression was not associated with prognostic outcomes of disease persistence or resolution. There was no association with clinical or sonographic variables.

Conclusions

Stromal cell markers CD55, CD248, FAP and podoplanin are expressed in ST in the earliest stage of arthritis. Baseline expression of FAP is higher in early synovitis patients who fulfil classification criteria for RA over time. These results suggest that significant fibroblast activation occurs in RA in the early window of disease.

Fibroblast-like synoviocytes-dependent effector molecules as a critical mediator for rheumatoid arthritis: Current status and future directions

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic-autoimmune-mediated disease characterized by synovial hyperplasia and progressive destruction of joint. Currently available biological agents and inhibitor therapy that specifically target tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin 1β (IL-1β), IL-6, T cells, B cells, and subcellular molecules (p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and janus kinase) cannot facilitate complete remission in all patients and are unable to cure the disease. Therefore, further potent therapeutic targets need to be identified for effective treatment and successful clinical outcomes in patients with RA. Scientific breakthroughs have brought new insights regarding fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS), a major constituent of the synovial hyperplasia. These play a pivotal role in RA invading cartilage and bone tissue. Currently there are no effective therapies available that specifically target these aggressive cells. Recent evidences indicate that FLS-dependent effector molecules (toll-like receptors, nodal effector molecules, hypoxia-inducible factor, and IL-17) have emerged as important mediators of RA. In this review, we discuss the pathological features and recent advances in understanding the role of FLS-dependent effector molecules in the disease onset of RA. Pharmacological inhibition of FLS-dependent effector molecules might be a promising option for FLS-targeted therapy in RA.

Functional Roles of Pattern Recognition Receptors That Recognize Virus Nucleic Acids in Human Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hAD-MSCs) are mesenchymal stem cells with the capability to modulate immune responses. Evidence showing that hAD-MSCs could mediate innate immune responses through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) is increasing. However, the roles of PRRs in regulating the innate sensing of virus nucleic acids (RNA and DNA) in hAD-MSCs have not yet been investigated. This study focused on the abundant expression of PRRs, including Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) and retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I), which recognize viral RNA, and gamma-interferon inducible protein 16 (IFI16), which recognizes viral DNA in hAD-MSCs. Poly(I:C), a synthetic dsRNA analogy, activated TLR3 and RIG-I and induced the expression of type I interferons (IFN-α/β) and antivirus proteins, including IFN-stimulating gene 15, 2'5'-oligoadenylate synthetase, and Mx GTPase 1 in hAD-MSCs, which were attenuated by the knockdown of each TLR3 or RIG-I. Synthetic herpes simplex viral DNA (HSV60) activated IFI16 and induced the expression of IFN-α/β and antivirus proteins in hAD-MSCs, which were inhibited by the knockdown of IFI16. Both poly(I:C) and HSV60 induced the expression of IFN-α/β through the phosphorylation of IFN-regulatory factor 3. All these results indicated that PRRs recognizing virus nucleic acids were expressed and can mediate antivirus responses in hAD-MSCs.

Intracellular delivery of poly(I:C) induces apoptosis of fibroblast-like synoviocytes via an unknown dsRNA sensor

Fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) express functional membranous and cytoplasmic sensors for double-stranded (ds)RNA. Notably, FLS undergo apoptosis upon transfection with the synthetic dsRNA analog poly(I:C). We here studied the mechanism of intracellular poly(I:C) recognition and subsequent cell death in FLS. FLS responded similarly to poly(I:C) or 3pRNA transfection; however, only intracellular delivery of poly(I:C) induced significant cell death, accompanied by upregulation of pro-apoptotic proteins Puma and Noxa, caspase 3 cleavage, and nuclear segregation. Knockdown of the DExD/H-box helicase MDA5 did not affect the response to intracellular poly(I:C); in contrast, knockdown of RIG-I abrogated the response to 3pRNA. Knockdown of the downstream adaptor proteins IPS, STING, and TRIF or inhibition of TBK1 did not affect the response to intracellular poly(I:C), while knockdown of IFNAR blocked intracellular poly(I:C)-mediated signaling and cell death. We conclude that a so far unknown intracellular sensor recognizes linear dsRNA and induces apoptosis in FLS.

Staphylococcus aureus induces TGF-β1 and bFGF expression through the activation of AP-1 and NF-κB transcription factors in bovine mammary gland fibroblasts

Staphylococcus aureus is a common Gram-positive pathogen that causes bovine mastitis, a persistent infection of the bovine mammary gland. To better understand the importance of bovine mammary fibroblasts (BMFBs) and the roles of the TLR-NF-κB and TLR-AP-1 signaling pathways in the regulation of S. aureus-associated mastitis and mammary fibosis, BMFBs cultured in vitro were stimulated with different concentrations of heat-inactivated S. aureus to analyze the gene and protein expression of toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2), toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) as well as the protein expression of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and activation protein-1 (AP-1) by means of quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and western blotting, respectively. Specific NF-κB and AP-1 inhibitors were also used to investigate their effects on the regulation of TGF-β1 and bFGF expression. The results indicated that, in addition to increasing mRNA and protein expression of TLR2 and TLR4, S. aureus could also upregulate TGF-β1 and bFGF mRNA expression and secretion through the activation of NF-κB and AP-1. The increase in TGF-β1 and bFGF expression was shown to be inhibited by AP-1- and NF-κB-specific inhibitors. Taken together, S. aureus induces TGF-β1 and bFGF expression through the activation of AP-1 and NF-κB in BMFBs. This information offers new potential targets for the treatment of bovine mammary fibrosis.

The Role of the Transcriptional Regulation of Stromal Cells in Chronic Inflammation

Chronic inflammation is a common process connecting pathologies that vary in their etiology and pathogenesis such as cancer, autoimmune diseases, and infections. The response of the immune system to tissue damage involves a carefully choreographed series of cellular interactions between immune and non-immune cells. In recent years, it has become clear that stromal resident cells have an essential role perpetuating the inflammatory environment and dictating in many cases the outcome of inflammatory based pathologies. Signal transduction pathways remain the main focus of study to understand how stimuli contribute to perpetuating the inflammatory response, mainly due to their potential role as therapeutic targets. However, molecular events orchestrated in the nucleus by transcription factors add additional levels of complexity and may be equally important for understanding the phenotypic differences of activated stromal components during the chronic inflammatory process. In this review, we focus on the contribution of transcription factors to the selective regulation of inducible proinflammatory genes, with special attention given to the regulation of the stromal fibroblastic cell function and response.

Innate immunity sensors participating in pathophysiology of joint diseases: a brief overview

The innate immune system consists of functionally specialized "modules" that are activated in response to a particular set of stimuli via sensors located on the surface or inside the tissue cells. These cells screen tissues for a wide range of exogenous and endogenous danger/damage-induced signals with the aim to reject or tolerate them and maintain tissue integrity. In this line of thinking, inflammation evolved as an adaptive tool for restoring tissue homeostasis. A number of diseases are mediated by a maladaptation of the innate immune response, perpetuating chronic inflammation and tissue damage. Here, we review recent evidence on the cross talk between innate immune sensors and development of rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, and aseptic loosening of total joint replacements. In relation to the latter topic, there is a growing body of evidence that aseptic loosening and periprosthetic osteolysis results from long-term maladaptation of periprosthetic tissues to the presence of by-products continuously released from an artificial joint.

A novel molluscan Fos gene with immune defense function identified in the Hong Kong oyster, Crassostrea hongkongensis

The transcription factor Fos is a member of one of the best-studied AP-1 sub-families and has been implicated in a wide variety of biological processes, including the regulation of apoptosis, immune responses and cytokine production. In this report, a novel mollusk Fos (referred to as ChFos) gene was cloned and characterized from the Hong Kong oyster, Crassostrea hongkongensis. The deduced ChFos protein sequence comprised 333 amino acids and shared significant homology with invertebrate homologs. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that ChFos clusters with Fos from Crassostrea gigas and Crassostrea ariakensis. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis revealed that ChFos mRNA was broadly expressed in all tested tissues and during different stages of the oyster's embryonic and larval development. In addition, the expression of ChFos mRNA was significantly up-regulated under challenge with microorganisms (Vibrio alginolyticus, Staphylococcus haemolyticus and Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs: LPS, PGN and polyI:C). Moreover, fluorescence microscopy showed that ChFos protein is localized in the nucleus in HEK293T cells. Reporter assays suggested that ChFos may act as an efficient transcription activator in the regulation of AP-1-responsive gene expression through interaction with ChJun. Overall, this study presents the first experimental evidence of the presence and functional characteristics of Fos in mollusks, which reveals its involvement in host protection against immune challenge in the oyster.

CD55 deposited on synovial collagen fibers protects from immune complex-mediated arthritis

INTRODUCTION

CD55, a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored, complement-regulating protein (decay-accelerating factor), is expressed by fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) with high local abundance in the intimal lining layer. We here explored the basis and consequences of this uncommon presence.

METHODS

Synovial tissue, primary FLS cultures, and three-dimensional FLS micromasses were analyzed. CD55 expression was assessed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR), in situ hybridization, flow cytometry, and immunohistochemistry. Reticular fibers were visualized by Gomori staining and colocalization of CD55 with extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins by confocal microscopy. Membrane-bound CD55 was released from synovial tissue with phospholipase C. Functional consequences of CD55 expression were studied in the K/BxN serum transfer model of arthritis using mice that in addition to CD55 also lack FcγRIIB (CD32), increasing susceptibility for immune complex-mediated pathology.

RESULTS

Abundant CD55 expression seen in FLS of the intimal lining layer was associated with linearly oriented reticular fibers and was resistant to phospholipase C treatment. Expression of CD55 colocalized with collagen type I and III as well as with complement C3. A comparable distribution of CD55 was established in three-dimensional micromasses after ≥3 weeks of culture together with the ECM. CD55 deficiency did not enhance K/BxN serum-induced arthritis, but further exaggerated disease activity in Fcgr2b (-/-) mice.

CONCLUSIONS

CD55 is produced by FLS and deposited on the local collagen fiber meshwork, where it protects the synovial tissue against immune complex-mediated arthritis.

Amniotic membrane modulates innate immune response inhibiting PRRs expression and NF-κB nuclear translocation on limbal myofibroblasts

Corneal damage observed in a viral infection such as herpetic stromal keratitis is mainly caused by proinflammatory molecules released by resident cells in the response to viral antigens. There are pattern recognition receptors like MDA5, RIG-1, and TLR3, that recognize viral dsRNA and after activation, the innate immune response is exacerbated inducing the synthesis and secretion of inflammatory cytokines through NF-κB activation. Amniotic membrane (AM) has demonstrated to reduce inflammation by several mechanisms, however the effect of AM on innate immune receptors such as MDA5, RIG-1, and TLR3 has not been reported. In this study, we have determined that the presence of AM significantly inhibited the synthesis and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines on human limbal myofibroblasts (HLM) stimulated with poly I:C. Similarly, the presence of AM reduced the protein expression of MDA5, RIG-1, and TLR3 on poly I:C stimulated HLM. Additionally, the presence of the AM significantly inhibited the NF-κB nuclear translocation when the HLM were poly I:C stimulated, and concomitantly, the AM was able to relocate cadherins affecting the myofibroblastic cellular morphology. These results suggest that AM generates an anti-inflammatory microenvironment, and specific inhibition of NFκB nuclear translocation on infected corneal tissue would reduce the inflammation undesirable effects, explaining in part the beneficial usefulness of transplanting AM on herpetic stromal keratitis.

Toll-like receptors expressed by synovial fibroblasts perpetuate Th1 and th17 cell responses in rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by synovial fibroblast hyperplasia and bone and cartilage erosion. Synovial fibroblast- and T cell-mediated inflammation plays crucial roles in the pathogenesis of RA. However how this inflammation is initiated, propagated, and maintained remains controversial. Here, we systemically examined the contribution of toll-like receptors (TLRs) to the inflammatory mediator production as well as Th1 and Th17 cell hyperactivity in RA. Our results show that rheumatoid arthritis synovial fibroblasts (RASF) express a series of TLRs, including TLR2, TLR3, TLR4, and TLR9, with the predominant expression of TLR3. Moreover, the expression levels of these TLRs were higher than those in osteoarthritis synovial fibroblasts (OASF). Ligation of TLR3, as well as TLR2 and TLR4, resulted in vigorous production of inflammatory cytokines, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in RASF, with activation of the NF-κB, MAPK, and IRF3 pathways. More important, activation of these TLRs expressed by RASF exacerbated inflammatory Th1 and Th17 cell expansion both in cell-cell contact-dependent and inflammatory cytokine-dependent manners, which induced more IFN-γ and IL-17 accumulation. Targeting TLRs may modulate the inflammation in RA and provide new therapeutic strategies for overcoming this persistent disease.

Enzymatic synthesis and purification of a defined RIG-I ligand

Receptor-based nucleic acid sensing constitutes one of the most fundamental mechanisms of our innate immune system to sense viral infection. RIG-I is a cytosolic RNA helicase that senses the presence of 5' triphosphate RNA species, a common feature of many negative strand RNA viruses. We here describe a protocol to enzymatically synthesize and to purify a defined RIG-I ligand that can be used to study RIG-I activation in vitro and in vivo.

Activator protein-1 (AP-1) and response to pathogen infection in the Hong Kong oyster (Crassostrea hongkongensis)

Growing evidence suggests that the transcription factor activator protein-1 (AP-1), a downstream target of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling, plays a major role in stimulating the synthesis of immune effector molecules during innate immune responses. We have characterized ChAP-1, an AP-1-like protein in Crassostrea hongkongensis that is a member of the AP-1 family of proteins. ChAP-1 is composed of 290 amino acid residues with a Jun and bZIP domain at the N- and C-termini, respectively, a structure similar to that of known Ap-1 proteins. ChAP-1 mRNA is expressed in several tissues analyzed, with highest expression in the mantle. Expression of ChAP-1 increases in response to Vibrio alginolyticus, Salmo haemolyticus or Salmo cerevisiae infection and, despite the location of GFP-tagged full-length ChAP-1 protein in the cytoplasm, ChAP-1 activates the transcription of an L8G5-luc reporter gene, and its over-expression can also activate the AP-1-Luc reporter gene in HEK293T cells.

Pattern recognition receptor-initiated innate antiviral response in mouse adipose cells

Although wide range of viruses can infect adipose tissues, innate antiviral response of adipose cells has not been investigated. This study focused on innate antiviral system in mouse adipose cells. Major virus sensors including Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3), melanoma differentiation-associated antigen 5 (MDA5) and retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) are constitutively expressed in preadipocytes and adipocytes. Poly(I:C), a common agonist of TLR3, MDA5 and RIG-I, induced the expression of type I interferons (IFN-α/β) in the two types of adipose cells through the activation of IFN-regulatory factor 3 and upregulated pro-inflammatory factors such as TNF-α and IL-6 through the activation nuclear factor kappa B. Moreover, poly(I:C) induced multiple antiviral proteins including IFN-stimulating gene 15, 2'5'-oligoadenylate synthetase and Mx GTPase 1 in preadipocytes and adipocytes. The poly(I:C)-induced innate antiviral response was reduced by TLR3 deficiency and knockdown of MDA5 or RIG-I. Poly(I:C) also inhibited the differentiation of preadipocytes to adipocytes and suppressed the expression of leptin, adiponectin and resistin in mature adipocytes. The results demonstrated that adipose cells are equipped with innate antiviral system, which may modulate the function of adipocytes.