Molecular and phenotypic characteristics of healthcare- and community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus at a rural hospital

ST105 Lineage of MRSA: An Emerging Implication for Bloodstream Infection in the American and European Continents

Sequence-type 5 (ST5) of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), harboring the staphylococcal chromosomal cassette mec type IV (SCCmecIV), was first detected in Portugal. It emerged as a significant cause of healthcare-associated (HA) infection in pediatric units and was hence named the pediatric clone. Another ST5 lineage, which carries SCCmecII, also prevailed in the USA and Japan for multiple years. More recently, another MRSA lineage, ST105-SCCmecII, part of the evolution of clonal complex 5 (CC5) MRSA, has emerged as the cause of hospital-acquired bloodstream infection outbreaks in countries including Portugal, the USA, and Brazil. This article reviews studies on the epidemiology and evolution of these newly emerging pathogens. To this end, a search of PUBMED from inception to 2024 was performed to find articles reporting the occurrence of ST105 MRSA in epidemiologic studies. A second search was performed to find studies on MRSA, CC5, ST5, and SCCmecII. A search of PUBMED from 1999 to 2024 was also performed to identify studies on the genomics and evolution of ST5, CC5, and ST105 MRSA. Further studies were identified by analyzing the references of the previously selected articles from PUBMED. Most articles on ST105 MRSA were included in this review. Only articles written in English were included. Furthermore, only studies that used a reliable genotyping method (e.g., whole genome sequencing, or MLST) to classify the CC5 lineages were selected. The quality and selection of articles were based on the consensus assessment of the three authors in independent evaluations. In conclusion, ST105-SCCmecII is an emerging MRSA in several countries, being the second/third most important CC5 lineage, with a relatively high frequency in bloodstream infections. Of concern is the increased mortality from BSI in patients older than 15 years and the higher prevalence of ST105-SCCmecII in the blood of patients older than 60 years reported in some studies.

Characterization of compound A, a novel lincomycin derivative active against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is one of causative bacteria for hospital- and community-acquired infections. In order to overcome MRSA infection, we synthesized compound A, a lincomycin derivative, and evaluated the biological properties. The MIC₅₀ and MIC₉₀ values of compound A against MRSA clinical isolates, which were susceptible to clindamycin, from infected skin in Japan were 0.12 and 0.25 μg ml^-1, respectively, and those against hospital-acquired MRSA with clindamycin resistance were 1.0 and 2.0 μg ml^-1, respectively. Linezolid non-susceptible MRSA selected in the laboratory had mutations in the 23S rRNA gene and exhibited cross-resistance to compound A. MRSA non-susceptible to compound A selected in laboratory was not cross-resistant to linezolid, implying that the binding site to 23S rRNA partly overlaps with clindamycin and linezolid. The in vivo efficacies of compound A against mouse skin abscess model infected with clindamycin-susceptible and -resistant MRSA were superior to those of clindamycin and linezolid, respectively. The well-known linezolid-induced myelosuppression is caused by its inhibitory effect on mitochondrial function, but inhibition was weaker for compound A than that of linezolid. In short, compound A has broader anti-MRSA activities than clindamycin and linezolid due to additional binding site, and demonstrated preferable safety profile as a potential anti-MRSA drug.

Molecular epidemiology of antimicrobial resistant microorganisms in the 21th century: a review of the literature

Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) are the most frequent and severe complication acquired in healthcare settings with high impact in terms of morbidity, mortality and costs. Many bacteria could be implicated in these infections, but, expecially multidrug resistance bacteria could play an important role. Many microbial typing technologies have been developed until to the the bacterial whole-genome sequencing and the choice of a molecular typing method therefore will depend on the skill level and resources of the laboratory and the aim and scale of the investigation. In several studies the molecular investigation of pathogens involved in HAIs was performed with many microorganisms identified as causative agents such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Clostridium difficile, Acinetobacter spp., Enterobacter spp., Enterococcus spp., Staphylococcus aureus and several more minor species. Here, we will describe the most and least frequently reported clonal complex, sequence types and ribotypes with their worldwide geographic distribution for the most important species involved in HAIs.

Molecular and phenotypic characterization of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates from a tertiary hospital in the Philippines

Background

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) poses a major threat to public health worldwide. There are relatively few studies addressing the molecular epidemiology of MRSA in the Philippines.

Methods

This study characterized MRSA isolates in terms of their antimicrobial susceptibility profile, the SCCmec type, and the presence of lukF-lukS genes for Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL) and determined the relatedness of the isolates by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD)-polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

Results

A total of 236 S. aureus were isolated from clinical specimens of the Makati Medical Center in Makati City, Philippines, between January 2013 and June 2013, and 108 or 45.76 % were found to be MRSA. Results showed that the MRSA strains were resistant to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (20.37 %), azithromycin (10.19 %), gentamicin (5.56 %), and linezolid (4.63 %), while all were susceptible to vancomycin, nitrofurantoin, levofloxacin, minocycline, rifampin, and tetracycline. One isolate was found positive for inducible clindamycin resistance. All of the 108 MRSA strains were confirmed to carry the mecA and SCCmec genes, while the PVL genes were detected in 41 (38 %) of the isolates. Ninety-six isolates (89 %) carried SCCmec type IV, while the remaining isolates carried SCCmec type I (11 isolates) or type III (one isolate).

Conclusion

This study is the first to present a comprehensive MRSA surveillance data with molecular characterization in a tertiary hospital in the Philippines.

A case control study of environmental and occupational exposures associated with methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage in patients admitted to a rural tertiary care hospital in a high density swine region

BACKGROUND

Distinct strains of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) have been identified on livestock and livestock workers. Industrial food animal production may be an important environmental reservoir for human carriage of these pathogenic bacteria. The objective of this study was to investigate environmental and occupational exposures associated with nasal carriage of MRSA in patients hospitalized at Vidant Medical Center, a tertiary hospital serving a region with intensive livestock production in eastern North Carolina.

METHODS

MRSA nasal carriage was identified via nasal swabs collected within 24 hours of hospital admission. MRSA carriers (cases) were gender and age matched to non-carriers (controls). Participants were interviewed about recent environmental and occupational exposures. Home addresses were geocoded and publicly available data were used to estimate the density of swine in residential census block groups of residence. Conditional logistic regression models were used to derive odds ratio (OR) estimates and 95% confidence intervals (CI). Presence of the scn gene in MRSA isolates was assessed. In addition, multi locus sequence typing (MLST) of the MRSA isolates was performed, and the Diversilab® system was used to match the isolates to USA pulsed field gel electrophoresis types.

RESULTS

From July - December 2011, 117 cases and 119 controls were enrolled. A higher proportion of controls than cases were current workforce members (41.2% vs. 31.6%) Cases had a higher odds of living in census block groups with medium densities of swine (OR: 4.76, 95% CI: 1.36-16.69) and of reporting the ability to smell odor from a farm with animals when they were home (OR: 1.51, 95% CI: 0.80-2.86). Of 49 culture positive MRSA isolates, all were scn positive. Twenty-two isolates belonged to clonal complex 5.

CONCLUSIONS

Absence of livestock workers in this study precluded evaluation of occupational exposures. Higher odds of MRSA in medium swine density areas could reflect environmental exposure to swine or poultry.

Molecular epidemiology of Flavobacterium psychrophilum from Swiss fish farms

Bacterial cold water disease (BCWD) and rainbow trout fry syndrome (RTFS) caused by Flavobacterium psychrophilum are 2 of the major diseases causing high fish mortality in salmonid fish farms. The molecular epidemiology of F. psychrophilum is still largely unknown. Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) has been previously used for this pathogen and underscored a correlation between clonal complexes and host fish species. Here we used MLST to study the relationships among 112 F. psychrophilum isolates from rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss and brown trout Salmo trutta fario and S. t. lacustris in Swiss fish farms between 1993 and 2012. The isolates belonged to 27 different sequence types (STs). Most of the Swiss outbreaks were associated with strains belonging to clonal complexes CC-ST2 and CC-ST90, found in both rainbow trout and brown trout and represented by several STs. Eight ST singletons could not be connected to any known clonal complex. Already reported from other parts of Europe and North America, CC-ST2 was the most frequent clonal complex observed, and it caused the majority of outbreaks in Switzerland, with CC-ST90 being the second most important type. In the tightly interconnected Swiss fish farms, no association between clonal complex and host fish was detected, but a temporal evolution of the frequency of some STs was observed. The occurrence of sporadic STs suggests high F. psychrophilum diversity and may reflect the presence of different sequence types in the environment.

Medical and household characteristics associated with methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage among patients admitted to a rural tertiary care hospital

BACKGROUND

Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) poses a threat to patient safety and public health. Understanding how MRSA is acquired is important for prevention efforts. This study investigates risk factors for MRSA nasal carriage among patients at an eastern North Carolina hospital in 2011.

METHODS

Using a case-control design, hospitalized patients ages 18 - 65 years were enrolled between July 25, 2011 and December 15, 2011 at Vidant Medical Center, a tertiary care hospital that screens all admitted patients for nasal MRSA carriage. Cases, defined as MRSA nasal carriers, were age and gender matched to controls, non-MRSA carriers. In-hospital interviews were conducted, and medical records were reviewed to obtain information on medical and household exposures. Multivariable conditional logistic regression was used to derive odds ratio (OR) estimates of association between MRSA carriage and medical and household exposures.

RESULTS

In total, 117 cases and 119 controls were recruited to participate. Risk factors for MRSA carriage included having household members who took antibiotics or were hospitalized (OR: 3.27; 95% Confidence Interval (CI): 1.24-8.57) and prior hospitalization with a positive MRSA screen (OR: 3.21; 95% CI: 1.12-9.23). A lower proportion of cases than controls were previously hospitalized without a past positive MRSA screen (OR: 0.40; 95% CI: 0.19-0.87).

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that household exposures are important determinants of MRSA nasal carriage in hospitalized patients screened at admission.

MRSA in Africa: filling the global map of antimicrobial resistance

We sought to assess the prevalence of methicillin-resistance among Staphylococcus aureus isolates in Africa. We included articles published in 2005 or later reporting for the prevalence of MRSA among S. aureus clinical isolates. Thirty-two studies were included. In Tunisia, the prevalence of MRSA increased from 16% to 41% between 2002–2007, while in Libya it was 31% in 2007. In South Africa, the prevalence decreased from 36% in 2006 to 24% during 2007–2011. In Botswana, the prevalence varied from 23–44% between 2000–2007. In Algeria and Egypt, the prevalence was 45% and 52% between 2003–2005, respectively. In Nigeria, the prevalence was greater in the northern than the southern part. In Ethiopia and the Ivory Coast, the prevalence was 55% and 39%, respectively. The prevalence of MRSA was lower than 50% in most of the African countries, although it appears to have risen since 2000 in many African countries, except for South Africa.

Household risk factors for colonization with multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates

Antimicrobial resistance, particularly in pathogens such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), limits treatment options and increases healthcare costs. To understand patient risk factors, including household and animal contact, potentially associated with colonization with multidrug-resistant MRSA isolates, we performed a prospective study of case patients colonized with MRSA on admission to a rural tertiary care hospital. Patients were interviewed and antimicrobial resistance patterns were tested among isolates from admitted patients colonized with MRSA in 2009-10. Prevalence of resistance was compared by case-patient risk factors and length-of-stay outcome among 88 MRSA case patients. Results were compared to NHANES 2003-04. Overall prevalence of multidrug resistance (non-susceptibility to ≥ four antimicrobial classes) in MRSA nasal isolates was high (73%) and was associated with a 1.5-day increase in subsequent length of stay (p = 0.008). History of hospitalization within the past six months, but not antimicrobial use in the same time period, was associated with resistance patterns. Within a subset of working-age case patients without recent history of hospitalization, animal contact was potentially associated with multidrug resistance. History of hospitalization, older age, and small household size were associated with multidrug resistance in NHANES data. In conclusion, recent hospitalization of case patients was predictive of antimicrobial resistance in MRSA isolates, but novel risk factors associated with the household may be emerging in CA-MRSA case patients. Understanding drivers of antimicrobial resistance in MRSA isolates is important to hospital infection control efforts, relevant to patient outcomes and to indicators of the economic burden of antimicrobial resistance.

MRSA carriage in the equine community: an investigation of horse-caretaker couples

Equine methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) carriage entails a risk of both equine and zoonotic transmission and infection. In Europe, CC398, the livestock-associated (LA-)MRSA is highly prevalent in horses and veterinary personnel at equine clinics. The extent of the MRSA reservoir created by healthy horses from the general population and associated health hazard for their daily caretakers is, however, unknown. This study aimed at screening healthy horse-caretaker couples from a broad range of home farms. At five equine gatherings, 166 couples were selected for MRSA screening in the anterior nares and participation in an epidemiologic survey. All MRSA isolates were subjected to genotyping and antimicrobial susceptibility testing. Only 4 humans (2.4%) and 2 of their horses (1.2%) tested MRSA positive. Within the 2 couples where both partners were positive, man and horse carried isolates belonging to identical, livestock-associated spa types (t011 and t2330) and demonstrating equal antimicrobial susceptibility patterns. For all LA-MRSA positive humans (n=3) and animals (n=2) regular (in)direct contact with the veterinary sector was reported. A significant association between the horses' carriage status and transportation to an event could not be demonstrated (P=1.00). In conclusion, outside equine clinics, the extent of the MRSA reservoir in horses and their caretakers was low. Travel to an equine gathering could not be withheld as a risk factor for equine MRSA carriage, whereas indications were found that contact with veterinary care may predispose both healthy horses and their handlers to carriage.