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Lamża Ł. Diversity of 'simple' multicellular eukaryotes: 45 independent cases and six types of multicellularity. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2023; 98:2188-2209. [PMID: 37475165 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023]
Abstract
Multicellularity evolved multiple times in the history of life, with most reviewers agreeing that it appeared at least 20 times in eukaryotes. However, a specific list of multicellular eukaryotes with clear criteria for inclusion has not yet been published. Herein, an updated critical review of eukaryotic multicellularity is presented, based on current understanding of eukaryotic phylogeny and new discoveries in microbiology, phycology and mycology. As a result, 45 independent multicellular lineages are identified that fall into six distinct types. Functional criteria, as distinct from a purely topological definition of a cell, are introduced to bring uniformity and clarity to the existing definitions of terms such as colony, multicellularity, thallus or plasmodium. The category of clonal multicellularity is expanded to include: (i) septated multinucleated thalli found in Pseudofungi and early-branching Fungi such as Chytridiomycota and Blastocladiomycota; and (ii) multicellular reproductive structures formed by plasmotomy in intracellular parasites such as Phytomyxea. Furthermore, (iii) endogeneous budding, as found in Paramyxida, is described as a form of multicellularity. The best-known case of clonal multicellularity, i.e. (iv) non-separation of cells after cell division, as known from Metazoa and Ochrophyta, is also discussed. The category of aggregative multicellularity is expanded to include not only (v) pseudoplasmodial forms, such a sorocarp-forming Acrasida, but also (vi) meroplasmodial organisms, such as members of Variosea or Filoreta. A common set of topological, geometric, genetic and life-cycle criteria are presented that form a coherent, philosophically sound framework for discussing multicellularity. A possibility of a seventh type of multicellularity is discussed, that of multi-species superorganisms formed by protists with obligatory bacterial symbionts, such as some members of Oxymonada or Parabasalia. Its inclusion is dependent on the philosophical stance taken towards the concepts of individuality and organism in biology. Taxa that merit special attention are identified, such as colonial Centrohelea, and a new speculative form of multicellularity, possibly present in some reticulopodial amoebae, is briefly described. Because of insufficient phylogenetic and morphological data, not all lineages could be unequivocally identified, and the true total number of all multicellular eukaryotic lineages is therefore higher, likely close to a hundred.
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Affiliation(s)
- Łukasz Lamża
- Copernicus Center for Interdisciplinary Studies, Jagiellonian University, Szczepanska 1, Kraków, 31-011, Poland
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2
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Tong CY, Derek CJC. Novel Extrapolymeric Substances Biocoating on Polyvinylidene Fluoride Membrane for Enhanced Attached Growth of Navicula incerta. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2022:10.1007/s00248-022-02091-9. [PMID: 35978183 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-022-02091-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Cell adhesion is always the first step in biofilm development. With the emergence of attached cultivation systems, this study aims to promote a cost-effective approach for sustainable cultivation of microalgae, Navicula incerta, by pre-coating the main substrates, commercial polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membranes with its own washed algal cells and self-produced soluble extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) for strengthened biofilm development. The effects of pH value (6 to 9), cell suspension volume (10 to 30 mL), and EPS volume (10 to 50 mL) were statistically optimized by means of response surface methodology toolkit. Model outputs revealed good agreement with cell adhesion data variation less than 1% at optimized pre-coating conditions (7.20 pH, 30 mL cell suspension volume, and 50 mL EPS volume). Throughout long-term biofilm cultivation, results demonstrated that EPS pre-coating substantially improved the attached microalgae density by as high as 271% than pristine PVDF due to rougher surface and the presence of sticky exopolymer particles. Nutrients absorbed via the available EPS coating from the bulk medium made the immobilized cells to release less polysaccharides on an average of 30% less than uncoated PVDF. This work suggests that adhesive polymer binders derived from organic sources can be effectively integrated into the development of high-performance novel materials as biocoating for immobilized microalgae cultivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Y Tong
- School of Chemical Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 14300, Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia
| | - C J C Derek
- School of Chemical Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 14300, Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia.
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3
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Harke MJ, Frischkorn KR, Hennon GMM, Haley ST, Barone B, Karl DM, Dyhrman ST. Microbial community transcriptional patterns vary in response to mesoscale forcing in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre. Environ Microbiol 2021; 23:4807-4822. [PMID: 34309154 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.15677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The physical and biological dynamics that influence phytoplankton communities in the oligotrophic ocean are complex, changing across broad temporal and spatial scales. Eukaryotic phytoplankton (e.g., diatoms), despite their relatively low abundance in oligotrophic waters, are responsible for a large component of the organic matter flux to the ocean interior. Mesoscale eddies can impact both microbial community structure and function, enhancing primary production and carbon export, but the mechanisms that underpin these dynamics are still poorly understood. Here, mesoscale eddy influences on the taxonomic diversity and expressed functional profiles of surface communities of microeukaryotes and particle-associated heterotrophic bacteria from the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre were assessed over 2 years (spring 2016 and summer 2017). The taxonomic diversity of the microeukaryotes significantly differed by eddy polarity (cyclonic versus anticyclonic) and between sampling seasons/years and was significantly correlated with the taxonomic diversity of particle-associated heterotrophic bacteria. The expressed functional profile of these taxonomically distinct microeukaryotes varied consistently as a function of eddy polarity, with cyclones having a different expression pattern than anticyclones, and between sampling seasons/years. These data suggest that mesoscale forcing, and associated changes in biogeochemistry, could drive specific physiological responses in the resident microeukaryote community, independent of species composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Harke
- Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Biology and Paleo Environment, Columbia University, Palisades, NY, USA.,Gloucester Marine Genomics Institute, Gloucester, MA, USA
| | - Kyle R Frischkorn
- Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Biology and Paleo Environment, Columbia University, Palisades, NY, USA
| | - Gwenn M M Hennon
- Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Biology and Paleo Environment, Columbia University, Palisades, NY, USA.,College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK, USA
| | - Sheean T Haley
- Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Biology and Paleo Environment, Columbia University, Palisades, NY, USA
| | - Benedetto Barone
- Daniel K. Inouye Center for Microbial Oceanography: Research and Education, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA.,Department of Oceanography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA
| | - David M Karl
- Daniel K. Inouye Center for Microbial Oceanography: Research and Education, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA.,Department of Oceanography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA
| | - Sonya T Dyhrman
- Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Biology and Paleo Environment, Columbia University, Palisades, NY, USA.,Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
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4
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Guan Y, Chen R, Sun G, Liu Q, Liu J, Yu J, Lin C, Wang J. Secretion mechanism and adhesive mechanism of diatoms: Direct evidence from the quantitative analysis. Micron 2021; 140:102951. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micron.2020.102951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Revised: 09/06/2020] [Accepted: 09/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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5
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Gong W, Browne J, Hall N, Schruth D, Paerl H, Marchetti A. Molecular insights into a dinoflagellate bloom. ISME JOURNAL 2016; 11:439-452. [PMID: 27935592 DOI: 10.1038/ismej.2016.129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2016] [Revised: 08/07/2016] [Accepted: 08/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
In coastal waters worldwide, an increase in frequency and intensity of algal blooms has been attributed to eutrophication, with further increases predicted because of climate change. Yet, the cellular-level changes that occur in blooming algae remain largely unknown. Comparative metatranscriptomics was used to investigate the underlying molecular mechanisms associated with a dinoflagellate bloom in a eutrophied estuary. Here we show that under bloom conditions, there is increased expression of metabolic pathways indicative of rapidly growing cells, including energy production, carbon metabolism, transporters and synthesis of cellular membrane components. In addition, there is a prominence of highly expressed genes involved in the synthesis of membrane-associated molecules, including those for the production of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), which may serve roles in nutrient acquisition and/or cell surface adhesion. Biotin and thiamine synthesis genes also increased expression along with several cobalamin biosynthesis-associated genes, suggesting processing of B12 intermediates by dinoflagellates. The patterns in gene expression observed are consistent with bloom-forming dinoflagellates eliciting a cellular response to elevated nutrient demands and to promote interactions with their surrounding bacterial consortia, possibly in an effort to cultivate for enhancement of vitamin and nutrient exchanges and/or direct consumption. Our findings provide potential molecular targets for bloom characterization and management efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weida Gong
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC USA
| | - Jamie Browne
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC USA
| | - Nathan Hall
- Institute of Marine Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Morehead City, NC USA
| | - David Schruth
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC USA
| | - Hans Paerl
- Institute of Marine Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Morehead City, NC USA
| | - Adrian Marchetti
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC USA
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Leinweber K, Kroth PG. Capsules of the diatom Achnanthidium minutissimum arise from fibrillar precursors and foster attachment of bacteria. PeerJ 2015; 3:e858. [PMID: 25834772 PMCID: PMC4380156 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2014] [Accepted: 03/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Achnanthidium minutissimum is a benthic freshwater diatom that forms biofilms on submerged surfaces in aquatic environments. Within these biofilms, A. minutissimum cells produce extracellular structures which facilitate substrate adhesion, such as stalks and capsules. Both consist of extracellular polymeric substance (EPS), but the microstructure and development stages of the capsules are so far unknown, despite a number of hypotheses about their function, including attachment and protection. We coupled scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to bright-field microscopy (BFM) and found that A. minutissimum capsules mostly possess an unstructured surface. However, capsule material that was mechanically stressed by being stretched between or around cells displayed fibrillar substructures. Fibrils were also found on the frustules of non-encapsulated cells, implicating that A. minutissimum capsules may develop from fibrillar precursors. Energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy revealed that the capsule material do not contain silicon, distinguishing it from the frustule material. We furthermore show that bacteria preferentially attach to capsules, instead of non-encapsulated A. minutissimum cells, which supports the idea that capsules mediate diatom-bacteria interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Leinweber
- Konstanz Research School Chemical Biology , Germany ; Zukunftskolleg at the University of Konstanz , Germany ; Biology Department, University of Konstanz , Germany
| | - Peter G Kroth
- Biology Department, University of Konstanz , Germany
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Karp-Boss L, Gueta R, Rousso I. Judging diatoms by their cover: variability in local elasticity of Lithodesmium undulatum undergoing cell division. PLoS One 2014; 9:e109089. [PMID: 25337801 PMCID: PMC4206279 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0109089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2014] [Accepted: 09/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Unique features of diatoms are their intricate cell covers (frustules) made out of hydrated, amorphous silica. The frustule defines and maintains cell shape and protects cells against grazers and pathogens, yet it must allow for cell expansion during growth and division. Other siliceous structures have also evolved in some chain-forming species as means for holding neighboring cells together. Characterization and quantification of mechanical properties of these structures are crucial for the understanding of the relationship between form and function in diatoms, but thus far only a handful of studies have addressed this issue. We conducted micro-indentation experiments, using atomic force microscopy (AFM), to examine local variations in elastic (Young's) moduli of cells and linking structures in the marine, chain-forming diatom Lithodesmium undulatum. Using a fluorescent tracer that is incorporated into new cell wall components we tested the hypothesis that new siliceous structures differ in elastic modulus from their older counterparts. Results show that the local elastic modulus is a highly dynamic property. Elastic modulus of stained regions was significantly lower than that of unstained regions, suggesting that newly formed cell wall components are generally softer than the ones inherited from the parent cells. This study provides the first evidence of differentiation in local elastic properties in the course of the cell cycle. Hardening of newly formed regions may involve incorporation of additional, possibly organic, material but further studies are needed to elucidate the processes that regulate mechanical properties of the frustule during the cell cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee Karp-Boss
- School of Marine Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Rachel Gueta
- Department of Structural Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Itay Rousso
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Ben-Gurion University, Beer-Sheva, Israel
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Chen Y, Li YL, Zhou GT, Li H, Lin YT, Xiao X, Wang FP. Biomineralization mediated by anaerobic methane-consuming cell consortia. Sci Rep 2014; 4:5696. [PMID: 25027246 PMCID: PMC4100016 DOI: 10.1038/srep05696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2014] [Accepted: 06/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Anaerobic methanotrophic archaea (ANME) play a significant role in global carbon cycles. These organisms consume more than 90% of ocean-derived methane and influence the landscape of the seafloor by stimulating the formation of carbonates. ANME frequently form cell consortia with sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) of the family Deltaproteobacteria. We investigated the mechanistic link between ANME and the natural consortium by examining anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) metabolism and the deposition of biogenetic minerals through high-resolution imaging analysis. All of the cell consortia found in a sample of marine sediment were encrusted by a thick siliceous envelope consisting of laminated and cementing substances, whereas carbonate minerals were not found attached to cells. Beside SRB cells, other bacteria (such as Betaproteobacteria) were found to link with the consortia by adhering to the siliceous crusts. Given the properties of siliceous minerals, we hypothesize that ANME cell consortia can interact with other microorganisms and their substrates via their siliceous envelope, and this mechanism of silicon accumulation may serve in clay mineral formation in marine sedimentary environments. A mechanism for biomineralization mediated by AOM consortia was suggested based on the above observations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, People's Republic of China.,State Key Laboratory of Ocean Engineering, School of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, People's Republic of China
| | - Yi-Liang Li
- Department of Earth Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Gen-Tao Zhou
- CAS Key Laboratory of Crust-Mantle Materials and Environments, School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
| | - Han Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Crust-Mantle Materials and Environments, School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
| | - Yang-Ting Lin
- Key Laboratory of the Earth's Deep Interior, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Xiang Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, People's Republic of China.,State Key Laboratory of Ocean Engineering, School of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, People's Republic of China
| | - Feng-Ping Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, People's Republic of China.,State Key Laboratory of Ocean Engineering, School of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, People's Republic of China
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Marine polysaccharide networks and diatoms at the nanometric scale. Int J Mol Sci 2013; 14:20064-78. [PMID: 24113585 PMCID: PMC3821603 DOI: 10.3390/ijms141020064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2013] [Revised: 09/14/2013] [Accepted: 09/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite many advances in research on photosynthetic carbon fixation in marine diatoms, the biophysical and biochemical mechanisms of extracellular polysaccharide production remain significant challenges to be resolved at the molecular scale in order to proceed toward an understanding of their functions at the cellular level, as well as their interactions and fate in the ocean. This review covers studies of diatom extracellular polysaccharides using atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging and the quantification of physical forces. Following a brief summary of the basic principle of the AFM experiment and the first AFM studies of diatom extracellular polymeric substance (EPS), we focus on the detection of supramolecular structures in polysaccharide systems produced by marine diatoms. Extracellular polysaccharide fibrils, attached to the diatom cell wall or released into the surrounding seawater, form distinct supramolecular assemblies best described as gel networks. AFM makes characterization of the diatom polysaccharide networks at the micro and nanometric scales and a clear distinction between the self-assembly and self-organization of these complex systems in marine environments possible.
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