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Fan Y, Hou Y, Li Q, Dian Z, Wang B, Xia X. RNA virus diversity in rodents. Arch Microbiol 2023; 206:9. [PMID: 38038743 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-023-03732-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2023] [Revised: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
Many zoonotic disease emergencies are associated with RNA viruses in rodents that substantially impact public health. With the widespread application of meta-genomics and meta-transcriptomics for virus discovery over the last decade, viral sequences deposited in public databases have expanded rapidly, and the number of novel viruses discovered in rodents has increased. As important reservoirs of zoonotic viruses, rodents have attracted increasing attention for the risk of potential spillover of rodent-borne viruses. However, knowledge of rodent viral diversity and the major factors contributing to the risk of zoonotic epidemic outbreaks remains limited. Therefore, this study analyzes the diversity and composition of rodent RNA viruses using virus records from the Database of Rodent-associated Viruses (DRodVir/ZOVER), which covers the published literatures and records in GenBank database, reviews the main rodent RNA virus-induced human infectious diseases, and discusses potential challenges in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yayu Fan
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan, 650500, People's Republic of China
| | - Yutong Hou
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan, 650500, People's Republic of China
| | - Qian Li
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan, 650500, People's Republic of China
| | - Ziqin Dian
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First People's Hospital of Yunnan Province, Kunming, Yunnan, 650032, People's Republic of China
| | - Binghui Wang
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan, 650500, People's Republic of China.
| | - Xueshan Xia
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan, 650500, People's Republic of China.
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2
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Habitat and Season Effects on Small Mammal Bycatch in Live Trapping. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11121806. [PMID: 36552315 PMCID: PMC9775508 DOI: 10.3390/biology11121806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2022] [Revised: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Trapping small mammals is frequently used to study the dynamics, demography, behavior and presence of pathogens. When only particular small mammal species are in the focus of interest, all other species are unnecessary bycatch. We analyzed data from extensive live trapping campaigns conducted over the last decade in Germany, following a consistent standard trapping protocol that resulted in about 18,500 captures of small mammals. Animals were trapped with Ugglan multiple capture traps in grassland, forest and margin habitat. Trap success and the proportion of bycatch were about 30% when target species were common voles (Microtus arvalis) in grassland and common voles and bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) in margins and forests. This was more pronounced in spring and along margins. Species mentioned in the early warning list according to the Red List Germany were higher in numbers and proportion in spring and in grassland. The results will help to avoid periods with enhanced presence of bycatch, including endangered species (if the purpose of the study allows) or to pay particular attention in certain seasons and habitats when the occurrence of bycatch is most likely.
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3
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Danforth ME, Messenger S, Buttke D, Weinburke M, Carroll G, Hacker G, Niemela M, Andrews ES, Jackson BT, Kramer V, Novak M. Long-Term Rodent Surveillance after Outbreak of Hantavirus Infection, Yosemite National Park, California, USA, 2012. Emerg Infect Dis 2021; 26:560-567. [PMID: 32091360 PMCID: PMC7045852 DOI: 10.3201/eid2603.191307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In 2012, a total of 9 cases of hantavirus infection occurred in overnight visitors to Yosemite Valley, Yosemite National Park, California, USA. In the 6 years after the initial outbreak investigation, the California Department of Public Health conducted 11 rodent trapping events in developed areas of Yosemite Valley and 6 in Tuolumne Meadows to monitor the relative abundance of deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) and seroprevalence of Sin Nombre orthohantavirus, the causative agent of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. Deer mouse trap success in Yosemite Valley remained lower than that observed during the 2012 outbreak investigation. Seroprevalence of Sin Nombre orthohantavirus in deer mice during 2013–2018 was also lower than during the outbreak, but the difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.02). The decreased relative abundance of Peromyscus spp. mice in developed areas of Yosemite Valley after the outbreak is probably associated with increased rodent exclusion efforts and decreased peridomestic habitat.
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D'Souza MH, Patel TR. Biodefense Implications of New-World Hantaviruses. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:925. [PMID: 32850756 PMCID: PMC7426369 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Hantaviruses, part of the Bunyaviridae family, are a genus of negative-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses that cause two major diseases: New-World Hantavirus Cardiopulmonary Syndrome and Old-World Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome. Hantaviruses generally are found worldwide with each disease corresponding to their respective hemispheres. New-World Hantaviruses spread by specific rodent-host reservoirs and are categorized as emerging viruses that pose a threat to global health and security due to their high mortality rate and ease of transmission. Incidentally, reports of Hantavirus categorization as a bioweapon are often contradicted as both US National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention refer to them as Category A and C bioagents respectively, each retaining qualitative levels of importance and severity. Concerns of Hantavirus being engineered into a novel bioagent has been thwarted by Hantaviruses being difficult to culture, isolate, and purify limiting its ability to be weaponized. However, the natural properties of Hantaviruses pose a threat that can be exploited by conventional and unconventional forces. This review seeks to clarify the categorization of Hantaviruses as a bioweapon, whilst defining the practicality of employing New-World Hantaviruses and their effect on armies, infrastructure, and civilian targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Hilary D'Souza
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Alberta RNA Research and Training Institute, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB, Canada
| | - Trushar R Patel
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Alberta RNA Research and Training Institute, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB, Canada.,Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Disease, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Li Ka Shing Institute of Virology and Discovery Lab, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
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5
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Kjemtrup AM, Messenger S, Meza AM, Feiszli T, Yoshimizu MH, Padgett K, Singh S. New Exposure Location for Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome Case, California, USA, 2018. Emerg Infect Dis 2020; 25:1962-1964. [PMID: 31538924 PMCID: PMC6759255 DOI: 10.3201/eid2510.190058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We describe a case of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in a patient exposed to Sin Nombre virus in a coastal county in California, USA, that had no previous record of human cases. Environmental evaluation coupled with genotypic analysis of virus isolates from the case-patient and locally trapped rodents identified the likely exposure location.
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6
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Juan E, Levis S, Pini N, Polop J, Steinmann AR, Provensal MC. Mechanisms of Hantavirus Transmission in Oligoryzomys longicaudatus. ECOHEALTH 2019; 16:671-681. [PMID: 31792647 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-019-01454-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2018] [Revised: 08/12/2019] [Accepted: 10/15/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The cricetid rodent Oligoryzomys longicaudatus is the species host of Andes virus (ANDV) which causes hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in southern Argentina and Chile. Population density, behavioral interactions, and spacing patterns are factors that affect viral transmission among wild rodents. We predict that the highest prevalence of hantavirus antibody positive would be found among wounded, reproductive males and that, at high population densities, wounded, reproductive males would be dispersers rather than resident individuals. The study was conducted seasonally from October (spring) 2011 to October (spring) 2013 in a shrubland habitat of Cholila, Argentina. During each trapping session, we classified captured O. longicaudatus as resident or disperser individuals, estimated population density, and recorded wounds as an indicator of aggression among individuals. We obtained blood samples from each individual for serological testing. We used generalized linear models to test the statistical significance of association between antibody prevalence, and sex, resident/dispersal status, wounds and trapping session. The highest proportion of seropositive O. longicaudatus individuals was among wounded reproductive males during periods of the greatest population density, and the characteristics of seroconverted individuals support that transmission is horizontal through male intrasexual competition. A positive association between dispersing individuals and hantavirus antibody was detected at high population density. Our study design allowed us to obtain data on a large number of individuals that are seroconverted, enabling a better understanding of the ecology and epidemiology of the ANDV host system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ernesto Juan
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Avda. Rivadavia 1917, CP C1033AAJ, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Silvana Levis
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Virales Humanas (INEVH), Pergamino, Argentina
| | - Noemí Pini
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Virales Humanas (INEVH), Pergamino, Argentina
| | - Jaime Polop
- Grupo de Investigaciones en Ecología Poblacional y Comportamental (GIEPCO), Departamento de Ciencias Naturales, Instituto de Ciencias de la Tierra, Biodiversidad y Ambiente (ICBIA), Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto (UNRC)- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Agencia Postal N° 3, 5800, Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Andrea R Steinmann
- Grupo de Investigaciones en Ecología Poblacional y Comportamental (GIEPCO), Departamento de Ciencias Naturales, Instituto de Ciencias de la Tierra, Biodiversidad y Ambiente (ICBIA), Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto (UNRC)- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Agencia Postal N° 3, 5800, Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - María Cecilia Provensal
- Grupo de Investigaciones en Ecología Poblacional y Comportamental (GIEPCO), Departamento de Ciencias Naturales, Instituto de Ciencias de la Tierra, Biodiversidad y Ambiente (ICBIA), Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto (UNRC)- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Agencia Postal N° 3, 5800, Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina.
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7
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Mariën J, Borremans B, Verhaeren C, Kirkpatrick L, Gryseels S, Goüy de Bellocq J, Günther S, Sabuni CA, Massawe AW, Reijniers J, Leirs H. Density dependence and persistence of Morogoro arenavirus transmission in a fluctuating population of its reservoir host. J Anim Ecol 2019; 89:506-518. [PMID: 31545505 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 07/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A key aim in wildlife disease ecology is to understand how host and parasite characteristics influence parasite transmission and persistence. Variation in host population density can have strong impacts on transmission and outbreaks, and theory predicts particular transmission-density patterns depending on how parasites are transmitted between individuals. Here, we present the results of a study on the dynamics of Morogoro arenavirus in a population of multimammate mice (Mastomys natalensis). This widespread African rodent, which is also the reservoir host of Lassa arenavirus in West Africa, is known for its strong seasonal density fluctuations driven by food availability. We investigated to what degree virus transmission changes with host population density and how the virus might be able to persist during periods of low host density. A seven-year capture-mark-recapture study was conducted in Tanzania where rodents were trapped monthly and screened for the presence of antibodies against Morogoro virus. Observed seasonal seroprevalence patterns were compared with those generated by mathematical transmission models to test different hypotheses regarding the degree of density dependence and the role of chronically infected individuals. We observed that Morogoro virus seroprevalence correlates positively with host density with a lag of 1-4 months. Model results suggest that the observed seasonal seroprevalence dynamics can be best explained by a combination of vertical and horizontal transmission and that a small number of animals need to be infected chronically to ensure viral persistence. Transmission dynamics and viral persistence were best explained by the existence of both acutely and chronically infected individuals and by seasonally changing transmission rates. Due to the presence of chronically infected rodents, rodent control is unlikely to be a feasible approach for eliminating arenaviruses such as Lassa virus from Mastomys populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Mariën
- Evolutionary Ecology Group, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Benny Borremans
- Evolutionary Ecology Group, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California, LA, USA.,Interuniversity Institute for Biostatistics and Statistical Bioinformatics (I-BIOSTAT), Hasselt University, Hasselt, Belgium
| | | | | | - Sophie Gryseels
- Evolutionary Ecology Group, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.,Clinical and Epidemiological Virology, Rega Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Joëlle Goüy de Bellocq
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Research Facility Studenec, The Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Stephan Günther
- Bernhard-Nocht-Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
| | | | - Apia W Massawe
- PestManagement Centre, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Jonas Reijniers
- Evolutionary Ecology Group, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,Department of Engineering Management, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Herwig Leirs
- Evolutionary Ecology Group, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
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8
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Torres-Pérez F, Palma RE, Boric-Bargetto D, Vial C, Ferrés M, Vial PA, Martínez-Valdebenito C, Pavletic C, Parra A, Marquet PA, Mertz GJ. A 19 Year Analysis of Small Mammals Associated with Human Hantavirus Cases in Chile. Viruses 2019; 11:v11090848. [PMID: 31547341 PMCID: PMC6784195 DOI: 10.3390/v11090848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2019] [Revised: 09/07/2019] [Accepted: 09/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Small mammals present in areas where hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS) cases had occurred in central and southern Chile were captured and analyzed to evaluate the abundance of rodents and seroprevalence rates of antibodies to Andes orthohantavirus (ANDV). Sampling areas ranged from the Coquimbo to Aysén regions (30–45° S approx.) regions. Ninety-two sites in peridomestic and countryside areas were evaluated in 19 years of sampling. An antibody against ANDV was detected by strip immunoassay in 58 of 1847 specimens captured using Sherman traps. Of the eleven species of rodents sampled, Abrothrix olivacea, Oligoryzomys longicaudatus and Abrothrix hirta were the most frequently trapped. O. longicaudatus had the highest seropositivity rate, and by logistic regression analysis, O. longicaudatus of at least 60 g had 80% or higher probability to be seropositive. Sex, age and wounds were significantly related to seropositivity only for O. longicaudatus. Across administrative regions, the highest seropositivity was found in the El Maule region (34.8–36.2° S), and the highest number of HCPS cases was registered in the Aysén region. Our results highlight the importance of long term and geographically extended studies, particularly for highly fluctuating pathogens and their reservoirs, to understand the implications of the dynamics and transmission of zoonotic diseases in human populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Torres-Pérez
- Instituto de Biología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso 2373223, Chile.
| | - R Eduardo Palma
- Laboratorio de Biología Evolutiva, Departamento de Ecología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile; Santiago 8331150, Chile.
| | - Dusan Boric-Bargetto
- Instituto de Biología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso 2373223, Chile.
| | - Cecilia Vial
- Programa Hantavirus, Instituto de Ciencias e Innovación en Medicina, Facultad de Medicina, Clínica Alemana, Universidad del Desarrollo, Santiago 7610658, Chile.
| | - Marcela Ferrés
- Laboratorio de Infectología y Virología Molecular, Red Salud UC-Christus, Departamento de Enfermedades Infecciosas e Inmunología Pediátricas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8330024, Chile.
| | - Pablo A Vial
- Instituto de Ciencias e Innovación en Medicina, Facultad de Medicina, Clínica Alemana, Universidad del Desarrollo, Santiago 7610658, Chile.
| | - Constanza Martínez-Valdebenito
- Laboratorio de Infectología y Virología Molecular, Red Salud UC-Christus, Departamento de Enfermedades Infecciosas e Inmunología Pediátricas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8330024, Chile.
| | - Carlos Pavletic
- Oficina de Zoonosis y Control de Vectores, División de Políticas Publicas Saludables y Promoción, Subsecretaría de Salud Pública, Ministerio de Salud, Santiago 8320064, Chile.
| | - Alonso Parra
- Oficina de Zoonosis y Control de Vectores, División de Políticas Publicas Saludables y Promoción, Subsecretaría de Salud Pública, Ministerio de Salud, Santiago 8320064, Chile.
| | - Pablo A Marquet
- Departamento de Ecología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8331150, Chile.
| | - Gregory J Mertz
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque 87131, New Mexico.
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9
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The Needs for Developing Experiments on Reservoirs in Hantavirus Research: Accomplishments, Challenges and Promises for the Future. Viruses 2019; 11:v11070664. [PMID: 31331096 PMCID: PMC6669540 DOI: 10.3390/v11070664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2019] [Revised: 07/09/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to their large geographic distribution and potential high mortality rates in human infections, hantaviruses constitute a worldwide threat to public health. As such, they have been the subject of a large array of clinical, virological and eco-evolutionary studies. Many experiments have been conducted in vitro or on animal models to identify the mechanisms leading to pathogenesis in humans and to develop treatments of hantavirus diseases. Experimental research has also been dedicated to the understanding of the relationship between hantaviruses and their reservoirs. However, these studies remain too scarce considering the diversity of hantavirus/reservoir pairs identified, and the wide range of issues that need to be addressed. In this review, we present a synthesis of the experimental studies that have been conducted on hantaviruses and their reservoirs. We aim at summarizing the knowledge gathered from this research, and to emphasize the gaps that need to be filled. Despite the many difficulties encountered to carry hantavirus experiments, we advocate for the need of such studies in the future, at the interface of evolutionary ecology and virology. They are critical to address emerging areas of research, including hantavirus evolution and the epidemiological consequences of individual variation in infection outcomes.
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10
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Warner BM, Stein DR, Griffin BD, Tierney K, Leung A, Sloan A, Kobasa D, Poliquin G, Kobinger GP, Safronetz D. Development and Characterization of a Sin Nombre Virus Transmission Model in Peromyscus maniculatus. Viruses 2019; 11:v11020183. [PMID: 30795592 PMCID: PMC6409794 DOI: 10.3390/v11020183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2019] [Revised: 02/12/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In North America, Sin Nombre virus (SNV) is the main cause of hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS), a severe respiratory disease with a fatality rate of 35–40%. SNV is a zoonotic pathogen carried by deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus), and few studies have been performed examining its transmission in deer mouse populations. Studying SNV and other hantaviruses can be difficult due to the need to propagate the virus in vivo for subsequent experiments. We show that when compared with standard intramuscular infection, the intraperitoneal infection of deer mice can be as effective in producing SNV stocks with a high viral RNA copy number, and this method of infection provides a more reproducible infection model. Furthermore, the age and sex of the infected deer mice have little effect on viral replication and shedding. We also describe a reliable model of direct experimental SNV transmission. We examined the transmission of SNV between deer mice and found that direct contact between deer mice is the main driver of SNV transmission rather than exposure to contaminated excreta/secreta, which is thought to be the main driver of transmission of the virus to humans. Furthermore, increases in heat shock responses or testosterone levels in SNV-infected deer mice do not increase the replication, shedding, or rate of transmission. Here, we have demonstrated a model for the transmission of SNV between deer mice, the natural rodent reservoir for the virus. The use of this model will have important implications for further examining SNV transmission and in developing strategies for the prevention of SNV infection in deer mouse populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryce M Warner
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0J9, Canada.
| | - Derek R Stein
- Zoonotic Diseases and Special Pathogens, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB R3E3R2, Canada.
| | - Bryan D Griffin
- Zoonotic Diseases and Special Pathogens, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB R3E3R2, Canada.
| | - Kevin Tierney
- Zoonotic Diseases and Special Pathogens, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB R3E3R2, Canada.
| | - Anders Leung
- Zoonotic Diseases and Special Pathogens, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB R3E3R2, Canada.
| | - Angela Sloan
- Zoonotic Diseases and Special Pathogens, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB R3E3R2, Canada.
| | - Darwyn Kobasa
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0J9, Canada.
- Zoonotic Diseases and Special Pathogens, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB R3E3R2, Canada.
| | - Guillaume Poliquin
- Zoonotic Diseases and Special Pathogens, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB R3E3R2, Canada.
| | - Gary P Kobinger
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0J9, Canada.
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
- Centre de Recherche en Infectiologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Québec, Université Laval, Quebec City, QC G1V 0A6 Canada.
| | - David Safronetz
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0J9, Canada.
- Zoonotic Diseases and Special Pathogens, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB R3E3R2, Canada.
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11
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Kalcounis-Rueppell MC, Pultorak JD, Marler CA. Ultrasonic Vocalizations of Mice in the Genus Peromyscus. HANDBOOK OF ULTRASONIC VOCALIZATION - A WINDOW INTO THE EMOTIONAL BRAIN 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-809600-0.00022-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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12
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Is species richness driving intra- and interspecific interactions and temporal activity overlap of a hantavirus host? An experimental test. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0188060. [PMID: 29141047 PMCID: PMC5687724 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0188060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2017] [Accepted: 10/31/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
High species diversity of the potential animal host community for a zoonotic pathogen may reduce pathogen transmission among the most competent host, a phenomenon called the “dilution effect”, but the mechanisms driving this effect have been little studied. One proposed mechanism is “encounter reduction” where host species of low-competency decrease contact rates between infected and susceptible competent hosts, especially in directly transmitted diseases. We conducted an experiment in outdoor enclosures in northwestern Mexico where we manipulated rodent assemblages to assess the effect of species richness on the frequency of intra- and interspecific interactions and activity patterns of a hantavirus reservoir host (North American deermouse; Peromyscus maniculatus). Trials consisted of three treatments of rodent assemblages that differed in species richness, but had equal abundance of deermice; treatment 1 consisted of only deermice, treatment 2 included deermice and one non-competent host species, and treatment 3 included two non-competent host species in addition to deermice. To measure interactions and temporal activity, we strategically deployed foraging stations and infrared cameras. We did not find differences in the frequency of intraspecific interactions of deermice among treatments, but there were significantly more interspecific interactions between deermouse and non-competent hosts in treatment 2 than treatment 3, which is explained by the identity of the non-competent host species. In addition, there were differences in activity patterns between rodent species, and also between deermice from treatment 1 and treatment 2. These results indicate that at least at a small-scale analysis, the co-occurrence with other species in the study area does not influence the frequency of intraspecific interactions of deermice, and that deermice may be changing their activity patterns to avoid a particular non-competent host species (Dipodomys merriami). In conclusion, in this deermouse-hantavirus system a potential dilution effect would not be through intraspecific encounter reduction in the most competent hantavirus host. To identify variables of host assemblages that can influence pathogen transmission, we highlight the need to address the identity of species and the composition of assemblages, not only host species richness or diversity.
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13
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EVALUATING THE IMPACTS OF COINFECTION ON IMMUNE SYSTEM FUNCTION OF THE DEER MOUSE ( PEROMYSCUS MANICULATUS) USING SIN NOMBRE VIRUS AND BARTONELLA AS MODEL PATHOGEN SYSTEMS. J Wildl Dis 2017; 54:66-75. [PMID: 28977767 DOI: 10.7589/2017-01-015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
: Simultaneous infections with multiple pathogens can alter the function of the host's immune system, often resulting in additive or synergistic morbidity. We examined how coinfection with the common pathogens Sin Nombre virus (SNV) and Bartonella sp. affected aspects of the adaptive and innate immune responses of wild deer mice ( Peromyscus maniculatus). Adaptive immunity was assessed by measuring SNV antibody production; innate immunity was determined by measuring levels of C-reactive protein (CRP) in blood and the complement activity of plasma. Coinfected mice had reduced plasma complement activity and higher levels of CRP compared to mice infected with either SNV or Bartonella. However, antibody titers of deer mice infected with SNV were more than double those of coinfected mice. Plasma complement activity and CRP levels did not differ between uninfected deer mice and those infected with only Bartonella, suggesting that comorbid SNV and Bartonella infections act synergistically, altering the innate immune response. Collectively, our results indicated that the immune response of deer mice coinfected with both SNV and Bartonella differed substantially from individuals infected with only one of these pathogens. Results of our study provided unique, albeit preliminary, insight into the impacts of coinfection on immune system function in wild animal hosts and underscore the complexity of the immune pathways that exist in coinfected hosts.
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Mariën J, Borremans B, Gryseels S, Broecke BV, Becker-Ziaja B, Makundi R, Massawe A, Reijniers J, Leirs H. Arenavirus Dynamics in Experimentally and Naturally Infected Rodents. ECOHEALTH 2017; 14:463-473. [PMID: 28616660 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-017-1256-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2017] [Revised: 04/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/01/2017] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Infectious diseases of wildlife are typically studied using data on antibody and pathogen levels. In order to interpret these data, it is necessary to know the course of antibodies and pathogen levels after infection. Such data are typically collected using experimental infection studies in which host individuals are inoculated in the laboratory and sampled over an extended period, but because laboratory conditions are controlled and much less variable than natural conditions, the immune response and pathogen dynamics may differ. Here, we compared Morogoro arenavirus infection patterns between naturally and experimentally infected multimammate mice (Mastomys natalensis). Longitudinal samples were collected during three months of bi-weekly trapping in Morogoro, Tanzania, and antibody titer and viral RNA presence were determined. The time of infection was estimated from these data using a recently developed Bayesian approach, which allowed us to assess whether the natural temporal patterns match the previously observed patterns in the laboratory. A good match was found for 52% of naturally infected individuals, while most of the mismatches can be explained by the presence of chronically infected individuals (35%), maternal antibodies (10%), and an antibody detection limit (25%). These results suggest that while laboratory data are useful for interpreting field samples, there can still be differences due to conditions that were not tested in the laboratory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Mariën
- Evolutionary Ecology Group, University of Antwerp, Campus Drie Eiken, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk, Antwerp, Belgium.
| | - Benny Borremans
- Evolutionary Ecology Group, University of Antwerp, Campus Drie Eiken, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk, Antwerp, Belgium
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Sophie Gryseels
- Evolutionary Ecology Group, University of Antwerp, Campus Drie Eiken, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk, Antwerp, Belgium
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Bram Vanden Broecke
- Evolutionary Ecology Group, University of Antwerp, Campus Drie Eiken, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk, Antwerp, Belgium
| | | | - Rhodes Makundi
- Pest Management Center, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Apia Massawe
- Pest Management Center, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Jonas Reijniers
- Evolutionary Ecology Group, University of Antwerp, Campus Drie Eiken, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk, Antwerp, Belgium
- Department of Engineering Management, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Herwig Leirs
- Evolutionary Ecology Group, University of Antwerp, Campus Drie Eiken, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk, Antwerp, Belgium
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McGuire A, Miedema K, Fauver JR, Rico A, Aboellail T, Quackenbush SL, Hawkinson A, Schountz T. Maporal Hantavirus Causes Mild Pathology in Deer Mice (Peromyscus maniculatus). Viruses 2016; 8:E286. [PMID: 27763552 PMCID: PMC5086618 DOI: 10.3390/v8100286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2016] [Revised: 10/09/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Rodent-borne hantaviruses can cause two human diseases with many pathological similarities: hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS) in the western hemisphere and hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in the eastern hemisphere. Each virus is hosted by specific reservoir species without conspicuous disease. HCPS-causing hantaviruses require animal biosafety level-4 (ABSL-4) containment, which substantially limits experimental research of interactions between the viruses and their reservoir hosts. Maporal virus (MAPV) is a South American hantavirus not known to cause disease in humans, thus it can be manipulated under ABSL-3 conditions. The aim of this study was to develop an ABSL-3 hantavirus infection model using the deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus), the natural reservoir host of Sin Nombre virus (SNV), and a virus that is pathogenic in another animal model to examine immune response of a reservoir host species. Deer mice were inoculated with MAPV, and viral RNA was detected in several organs of all deer mice during the 56 day experiment. Infected animals generated both nucleocapsid-specific and neutralizing antibodies. Histopathological lesions were minimal to mild with the peak of the lesions detected at 7-14 days postinfection, mainly in the lungs, heart, and liver. Low to modest levels of cytokine gene expression were detected in spleens and lungs of infected deer mice, and deer mouse primary pulmonary cells generated with endothelial cell growth factors were susceptible to MAPV with viral RNA accumulating in the cellular fraction compared to infected Vero cells. Most features resembled that of SNV infection of deer mice, suggesting this model may be an ABSL-3 surrogate for studying the host response of a New World hantavirus reservoir.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda McGuire
- Arthropod-Borne and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.
| | - Kaitlyn Miedema
- Arthropod-Borne and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.
| | - Joseph R Fauver
- Arthropod-Borne and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.
| | - Amber Rico
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA.
| | - Tawfik Aboellail
- Arthropod-Borne and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.
| | - Sandra L Quackenbush
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.
| | - Ann Hawkinson
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO 80639, USA.
| | - Tony Schountz
- Arthropod-Borne and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA.
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Abstract
Modern human activity fueled by economic development is profoundly altering our relationship with microorganisms. This altered interaction with microbes is believed to be the major driving force behind the increased rate of emerging infectious diseases from animals. The spate of recent infectious disease outbreaks, including Ebola virus disease and Middle East respiratory syndrome, emphasize the need for development of new innovative tools to manage these emerging diseases. Disseminating vaccines are one such novel approach to potentially interrupt animal to human (zoonotic) transmission of these pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aisling A Murphy
- a School of Biomedical and Healthcare Sciences , Plymouth University , Plymouth , UK
| | - Alec J Redwood
- b The Institute for Immunology and Infectious Diseases , Murdoch University , Murdoch , Western Australia , Australia
| | - Michael A Jarvis
- a School of Biomedical and Healthcare Sciences , Plymouth University , Plymouth , UK
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Voutilainen L, Sironen T, Tonteri E, Bäck AT, Razzauti M, Karlsson M, Wahlström M, Niemimaa J, Henttonen H, Lundkvist Å. Life-long shedding of Puumala hantavirus in wild bank voles (Myodes glareolus). J Gen Virol 2015; 96:1238-1247. [PMID: 25701819 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.000076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2014] [Accepted: 01/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The knowledge of viral shedding patterns and viraemia in the reservoir host species is a key factor in assessing the human risk of zoonotic viruses. The shedding of hantaviruses (family Bunyaviridae) by their host rodents has widely been studied experimentally, but rarely in natural settings. Here we present the dynamics of Puumala hantavirus (PUUV) shedding and viraemia in naturally infected wild bank voles (Myodes glareolus). In a monthly capture-mark-recapture study, we analysed 18 bank voles for the presence and relative quantity of PUUV RNA in the excreta and blood from 2 months before up to 8 months after seroconversion. The proportion of animals shedding PUUV RNA in saliva, urine and faeces peaked during the first month after seroconversion, but continued throughout the study period with only a slight decline. The quantity of shed PUUV in reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) positive excreta was constant over time. In blood, PUUV RNA was present for up to 7 months but both the probability of viraemia and the virus load declined with time. Our findings contradict the current view of a decline in virus shedding after the acute phase and a short viraemic period in hantavirus infection - an assumption widely adopted in current epidemiological models. We suggest the life-long shedding as a means of hantaviruses to survive over host population bottlenecks, and to disperse in fragmented habitats where local host and/or virus populations face temporary extinctions. Our results indicate that the kinetics of pathogens in wild hosts may differ considerably from those observed in laboratory settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liina Voutilainen
- University of Helsinki, Department of Virology, Helsinki, Finland
- Natural Resources Institute Finland, Vantaa, Finland
| | - Tarja Sironen
- University of Helsinki, Department of Virology, Helsinki, Finland
- Natural Resources Institute Finland, Vantaa, Finland
| | - Elina Tonteri
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- University of Helsinki, Department of Virology, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Anne Tuiskunen Bäck
- The Public Health Agency of Sweden, Solna, Sweden
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Maria Razzauti
- University of Helsinki, Department of Virology, Helsinki, Finland
- Natural Resources Institute Finland, Vantaa, Finland
| | | | | | | | | | - Åke Lundkvist
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- The Public Health Agency of Sweden, Solna, Sweden
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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Immunogenetic factors affecting susceptibility of humans and rodents to hantaviruses and the clinical course of hantaviral disease in humans. Viruses 2014; 6:2214-41. [PMID: 24859344 PMCID: PMC4036553 DOI: 10.3390/v6052214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2013] [Revised: 03/17/2014] [Accepted: 05/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
We reviewed the associations of immunity-related genes with susceptibility of humans and rodents to hantaviruses, and with severity of hantaviral diseases in humans. Several class I and class II HLA haplotypes were linked with severe or benign hantavirus infections, and these haplotypes varied among localities and hantaviruses. The polymorphism of other immunity-related genes including the C4A gene and a high-producing genotype of TNF gene associated with severe PUUV infection. Additional genes that may contribute to disease or to PUUV infection severity include non-carriage of the interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA) allele 2 and IL-1β (-511) allele 2, polymorphisms of plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI-1) and platelet GP1a. In addition, immunogenetic studies have been conducted to identify mechanisms that could be linked with the persistence/clearance of hantaviruses in reservoirs. Persistence was associated during experimental infections with an upregulation of anti-inflammatory responses. Using natural rodent population samples, polymorphisms and/or expression levels of several genes have been analyzed. These genes were selected based on the literature of rodent or human/hantavirus interactions (some Mhc class II genes, Tnf promoter, and genes encoding the proteins TLR4, TLR7, Mx2 and β3 integrin). The comparison of genetic differentiation estimated between bank vole populations sampled over Europe, at neutral and candidate genes, has allowed to evidence signatures of selection for Tnf, Mx2 and the Drb Mhc class II genes. Altogether, these results corroborated the hypothesis of an evolution of tolerance strategies in rodents. We finally discuss the importance of these results from the medical and epidemiological perspectives.
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Hantavirus reservoirs: current status with an emphasis on data from Brazil. Viruses 2014; 6:1929-73. [PMID: 24784571 PMCID: PMC4036540 DOI: 10.3390/v6051929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2013] [Revised: 02/03/2014] [Accepted: 02/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the recognition of hantavirus as the agent responsible for haemorrhagic fever in Eurasia in the 1970s and, 20 years later, the descovery of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in the Americas, the genus Hantavirus has been continually described throughout the World in a variety of wild animals. The diversity of wild animals infected with hantaviruses has only recently come into focus as a result of expanded wildlife studies. The known reservoirs are more than 80, belonging to 51 species of rodents, 7 bats (order Chiroptera) and 20 shrews and moles (order Soricomorpha). More than 80genetically related viruses have been classified within Hantavirus genus; 25 recognized as human pathogens responsible for a large spectrum of diseases in the Old and New World. In Brazil, where the diversity of mammals and especially rodents is considered one of the largest in the world, 9 hantavirus genotypes have been identified in 12 rodent species belonging to the genus Akodon, Calomys, Holochilus, Oligoryzomys, Oxymycterus, Necromys and Rattus. Considering the increasing number of animals that have been implicated as reservoirs of different hantaviruses, the understanding of this diversity is important for evaluating the risk of distinct hantavirus species as human pathogens.
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Hantavirus immunology of rodent reservoirs: current status and future directions. Viruses 2014; 6:1317-35. [PMID: 24638205 PMCID: PMC3970152 DOI: 10.3390/v6031317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2014] [Revised: 02/19/2014] [Accepted: 02/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Hantaviruses are hosted by rodents, insectivores and bats. Several rodent-borne hantaviruses cause two diseases that share many features in humans, hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in Eurasia or hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome in the Americas. It is thought that the immune response plays a significant contributory role in these diseases. However, in reservoir hosts that have been closely examined, little or no pathology occurs and infection is persistent despite evidence of adaptive immune responses. Because most hantavirus reservoirs are not model organisms, it is difficult to conduct meaningful experiments that might shed light on how the viruses evade sterilizing immune responses and why immunopathology does not occur. Despite these limitations, recent advances in instrumentation and bioinformatics will have a dramatic impact on understanding reservoir host responses to hantaviruses by employing a systems biology approach to identify important pathways that mediate virus/reservoir relationships.
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Bagamian KH, Towner JS, Mills JN, Kuenzi AJ. Increased detection of Sin Nombre hantavirus RNA in antibody-positive deer mice from Montana, USA: evidence of male bias in RNA viremia. Viruses 2013; 5:2320-8. [PMID: 24064796 PMCID: PMC3798905 DOI: 10.3390/v5092320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2013] [Revised: 09/13/2013] [Accepted: 09/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Hantaviruses are widespread emergent zoonotic agents that cause unapparent or limited disease in their rodent hosts, yet cause acute, often fatal pulmonary or renal infections in humans. Previous laboratory experiments with rodent reservoir hosts indicate that hantaviruses can be cleared from host blood early in the infection cycle, while sequestered long term in various host organs. Field studies of North American deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus), the natural reservoir of Sin Nombre hantavirus, have shown that viral RNA can be transiently detected well past the early acute infection stage, but only in the minority of infected mice. Here, using a non-degenerate RT-PCR assay optimized for SNV strains known to circulate in Montana, USA, we show that viral RNA can be repeatedly detected on a monthly basis in up to 75% of antibody positive deer mice for periods up to 3–6 months. More importantly, our data show that antibody positive male deer mice are more than twice as likely to have detectable SNV RNA in their blood as antibody positive females, suggesting that SNV-infected male deer mice are more likely to shed virus and for longer periods of time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karoun H. Bagamian
- Viral Special Pathogens Branch, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30033, USA
- Department of Biology, Montana Tech, University of Montana, Butte, MT 59701, USA; E-Mails: (J.S.T.); (A.J.K.)
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.:+1-352-273-9571; Fax: +1-352-392-8855
| | - Jonathan S. Towner
- Department of Biology, Montana Tech, University of Montana, Butte, MT 59701, USA; E-Mails: (J.S.T.); (A.J.K.)
| | - James N. Mills
- Population Biology, Ecology & Evolution Program, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Amy J. Kuenzi
- Department of Biology, Montana Tech, University of Montana, Butte, MT 59701, USA; E-Mails: (J.S.T.); (A.J.K.)
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