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Plasminogen Activators in Neurovascular and Neurodegenerative Disorders. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22094380. [PMID: 33922229 PMCID: PMC8122722 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22094380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Revised: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The neurovascular unit (NVU) is a dynamic structure assembled by endothelial cells surrounded by a basement membrane, pericytes, astrocytes, microglia and neurons. A carefully coordinated interplay between these cellular and non-cellular components is required to maintain normal neuronal function, and in line with these observations, a growing body of evidence has linked NVU dysfunction to neurodegeneration. Plasminogen activators catalyze the conversion of the zymogen plasminogen into the two-chain protease plasmin, which in turn triggers a plethora of physiological events including wound healing, angiogenesis, cell migration and inflammation. The last four decades of research have revealed that the two mammalian plasminogen activators, tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA) and urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA), are pivotal regulators of NVU function during physiological and pathological conditions. Here, we will review the most relevant data on their expression and function in the NVU and their role in neurovascular and neurodegenerative disorders.
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Strickland AB, Shi M. Mechanisms of fungal dissemination. Cell Mol Life Sci 2021; 78:3219-3238. [PMID: 33449153 PMCID: PMC8044058 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-020-03736-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Fungal infections are an increasing threat to global public health. There are more than six million fungal species worldwide, but less than 1% are known to infect humans. Most of these fungal infections are superficial, affecting the hair, skin and nails, but some species are capable of causing life-threatening diseases. The most common of these include Cryptococcus neoformans, Aspergillus fumigatus and Candida albicans. These fungi are typically innocuous and even constitute a part of the human microbiome, but if these pathogens disseminate throughout the body, they can cause fatal infections which account for more than one million deaths worldwide each year. Thus, systemic dissemination of fungi is a critical step in the development of these deadly infections. In this review, we discuss our current understanding of how fungi disseminate from the initial infection sites to the bloodstream, how immune cells eliminate fungi from circulation and how fungi leave the blood and enter distant organs, highlighting some recent advances and offering some perspectives on future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley B Strickland
- Division of Immunology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine and Maryland Pathogen Research Institute, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA.
| | - Meiqing Shi
- Division of Immunology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine and Maryland Pathogen Research Institute, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA.
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Baker SK, Strickland S. A critical role for plasminogen in inflammation. J Exp Med 2020; 217:133866. [PMID: 32159743 PMCID: PMC7144526 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20191865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Revised: 12/10/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasminogen and its active form, plasmin, have diverse functions related to the inflammatory response in mammals. Due to these roles in inflammation, plasminogen has been implicated in the progression of a wide range of diseases with an inflammatory component. In this review, we discuss the functions of plasminogen in inflammatory regulation and how this system plays a role in the pathogenesis of diseases spanning organ systems throughout the body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah K Baker
- Patricia and John Rosenwald Laboratory of Neurobiology and Genetics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY
| | - Sidney Strickland
- Patricia and John Rosenwald Laboratory of Neurobiology and Genetics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY
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Benaducci T, Sardi JDCO, Lourencetti NMS, Scorzoni L, Gullo FP, Rossi SA, Derissi JB, de Azevedo Prata MC, Fusco-Almeida AM, Mendes-Giannini MJS. Virulence of Cryptococcus sp. Biofilms In Vitro and In Vivo using Galleria mellonella as an Alternative Model. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:290. [PMID: 27014214 PMCID: PMC4783715 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2015] [Accepted: 02/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans and C. gattii are fungal pathogens that are most commonly found in infections of the central nervous system, which cause life-threatening meningoencephalitis and can grow as a biofilm. Biofilms are structures conferring protection and resistance of microorganism to the antifungal drugs. This study compared the virulence of planktonic and biofilm cells of C. neoformans and C. gattii in Galleria mellonella model, as well as, the quantification of gene transcripts LAC1, URE1, and CAP59 by real time PCR. All three of the genes showed significantly increased expressions in the biofilm conditions for two species of Cryptococcus, when compared to planktonic cells. C. neoformans and C. gattii cells in the biofilm forms were more virulent than the planktonic cells in G. mellonella. This suggests that the biofilm conditions may contribute to the virulence profile. Our results contribute to a better understanding of the agents of cryptococcosis in the host-yeast aspects of the interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiane Benaducci
- Laboratório de Micologia, Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Araraquara, Universidade Estadual Paulista Araraquara, Brazil
| | - Janaina de C O Sardi
- Laboratório de Micologia, Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Araraquara, Universidade Estadual Paulista Araraquara, Brazil
| | - Natalia M S Lourencetti
- Laboratório de Micologia, Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Araraquara, Universidade Estadual Paulista Araraquara, Brazil
| | - Liliana Scorzoni
- Laboratório de Micologia, Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Araraquara, Universidade Estadual Paulista Araraquara, Brazil
| | - Fernanda P Gullo
- Laboratório de Micologia, Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Araraquara, Universidade Estadual Paulista Araraquara, Brazil
| | - Suélen A Rossi
- Laboratório de Micologia, Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Araraquara, Universidade Estadual Paulista Araraquara, Brazil
| | - Jaqueline B Derissi
- Laboratório de Micologia, Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Araraquara, Universidade Estadual Paulista Araraquara, Brazil
| | | | - Ana M Fusco-Almeida
- Laboratório de Micologia, Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Araraquara, Universidade Estadual Paulista Araraquara, Brazil
| | - Maria J S Mendes-Giannini
- Laboratório de Micologia, Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Araraquara, Universidade Estadual Paulista Araraquara, Brazil
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Tseng HK, Huang TY, Wu AYJ, Chen HH, Liu CP, Jong A. How Cryptococcus interacts with the blood-brain barrier. Future Microbiol 2015; 10:1669-82. [PMID: 26437710 DOI: 10.2217/fmb.15.83] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus demonstrates predilection for invasion of the brain, but the mechanism by which Cryptococcus crosses the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to cause brain invasion is largely unknown. In order for Cryptococcus to cross the BBB, there must be a way to either cross human brain microvascular endothelial cells, which are the main constitute of the BBB, or go in between tight junctions. Recent evidence of human brain microvascular endothelial cell responses to transcellular brain invasions includes membrane rearrangements, intracellular signaling pathways and cytoskeletal activations. Several Cryptococcal genes related to the traversal of BBB have been identified, including CPS1, ITR1a, ITR3c, PLB1, MPR1, FNX1 and RUB1. In addition, Cryptococcus neoformans-derived microvesicles may contribute to cryptococcal brain invasion. Paracellularly, Cryptococcus may traverse across BBB using either routes utilizing plasmin, ammonia or macrophages in a Trojan horse mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsiang-Kuang Tseng
- Department of Medicine, MacKay Medical College, No. 46, Sec. 3, Zhongzheng Road, Sanzhi Distric, New Taipei City 25245, Taiwan.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, MacKay Memorial Hospital, Taipei Branch, No. 92, Sec. 2, Zhongshan North Road, Taipei City 10449, Taiwan.,Microbiology Section, Department of Medical Research, MacKay Memorial Hospital, Tamshui Branch, No. 45, Minsheng Road, Tamshui District, New Taipei City 25160, Taiwan
| | - Tseng-Yu Huang
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, MacKay Memorial Hospital, Taipei Branch, No. 92, Sec. 2, Zhongshan North Road, Taipei City 10449, Taiwan
| | - Alice Ying-Jung Wu
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, MacKay Memorial Hospital, Taipei Branch, No. 92, Sec. 2, Zhongshan North Road, Taipei City 10449, Taiwan
| | - Hsin-Hong Chen
- Microbiology Section, Department of Medical Research, MacKay Memorial Hospital, Tamshui Branch, No. 45, Minsheng Road, Tamshui District, New Taipei City 25160, Taiwan
| | - Chang-Pan Liu
- Department of Medicine, MacKay Medical College, No. 46, Sec. 3, Zhongzheng Road, Sanzhi Distric, New Taipei City 25245, Taiwan.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, MacKay Memorial Hospital, Taipei Branch, No. 92, Sec. 2, Zhongshan North Road, Taipei City 10449, Taiwan.,Microbiology Section, Department of Medical Research, MacKay Memorial Hospital, Tamshui Branch, No. 45, Minsheng Road, Tamshui District, New Taipei City 25160, Taiwan
| | - Ambrose Jong
- Hematology-Oncology/BMT, Saban Research Institute, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA
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Ueno N, Lodoen MB. From the blood to the brain: avenues of eukaryotic pathogen dissemination to the central nervous system. Curr Opin Microbiol 2015; 26:53-9. [PMID: 26048316 PMCID: PMC10538213 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2015.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2015] [Revised: 05/07/2015] [Accepted: 05/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Infection of the central nervous system (CNS) is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality, and treatments available to combat the highly debilitating symptoms of CNS infection are limited. The mechanisms by which pathogens in the circulation overcome host immunity and breach the blood-brain barrier are active areas of investigation. In this review, we discuss recent work that has significantly advanced our understanding of the avenues of pathogen dissemination to the CNS for four eukaryotic pathogens of global health importance: Toxoplasma gondii, Plasmodium falciparum, Trypanosoma brucei, and Cryptococcus neoformans. These studies highlight the remarkable diversity of pathogen strategies for trafficking to the brain and will ultimately contribute to an improved ability to combat life-threatening CNS disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norikiyo Ueno
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry and the Institute for Immunology, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Melissa B Lodoen
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry and the Institute for Immunology, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA.
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Abstract
To infect the host and cause disease, many medically important fungi invade normally nonphagocytic host cells, such as endothelial cells and epithelial cells. Host cell invasion is a two-step process consisting of adherence followed by invasion. There are two general mechanisms of host cell invasion, induced endocytosis and active penetration. Furthermore, fungi can traverse epithelial or endothelial cell barriers either by proteolytic degradation of intercellular tight junctions or via a Trojan horse mechanism in which they are transported by leukocytes. Although these mechanisms of host cell invasion have been best studied using Candida albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans, it is probable that other invasive fungi also use one or more of these mechanisms to invade host cells. Identification of these invasion mechanisms holds promise to facilitate the development of new approaches to inhibit fungal invasion and thereby prevent disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald C Sheppard
- Departments of Microbiology and Immunology and Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Scott G Filler
- Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, California 90502 David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California 90025
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Teodoro VLI, Gullo FP, Sardi JDCO, Torres EM, Fusco-Almeida AM, Mendes-Giannini MJS. Environmental isolation, biochemical identification, and antifungal drug susceptibility of Cryptococcus species. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2013; 46:759-64. [DOI: 10.1590/0037-8682-0025-2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2013] [Accepted: 11/25/2013] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
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