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Doss JH, Barekzi N, Gauthier DT. Improving high-throughput techniques for bacteriophage discovery in multi-well plates. METHODS IN MICROBIOLOGY 2022; 200:106542. [PMID: 35882287 DOI: 10.1016/j.mimet.2022.106542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/16/2022] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
Bacteriophages (also called phages) are viruses of bacteria that have numerous applications in medicine, agriculture, ecology, and molecular biology. With the increasing interest in phages for their many uses, it is now especially important to make phage discovery more efficient and economical. Using the host Mycobacterium smegmatis mc2155, which is a model organism for phage discovery research and is closely related to important pathogens of humans and other animals, we investigated three procedures that are an integral part of phage discovery: enrichment of environmental samples, phage isolation and detection (which can also be used for host range determination), and phage purification. Enrichment in 6-well plates was successful with most environmental samples, and enrichment in 24- and 96-well plates was successful with some environmental samples, demonstrating that larger sample volumes are preferred when possible, but smaller sample volumes may be acceptable if the starting concentration of phages is sufficiently high. Measuring absorbance in multi-well plates was at least as sensitive as the traditional plaque assay for the detection of phages. We also demonstrated a technique for the purification of single phage types from mixed cultures in liquid medium. Multi-well techniques can be used as alternatives or complementary approaches to traditional methods of phage discovery and characterization depending on the needs of the researcher in terms of time, available resources, host species, phage-bacteria matches, and specific goals. In the future, these techniques could be applied to the discovery of phages of aquatic mycobacteria and other hosts for which few phages have currently been isolated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janis H Doss
- The Association of Public Health Laboratories, Silver Spring, MD, USA.
| | - Nazir Barekzi
- Department of Biology, Norfolk State University, Norfolk, VA, USA.
| | - David T Gauthier
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA.
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2
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Kittler S, Mengden R, Korf IHE, Bierbrodt A, Wittmann J, Plötz M, Jung A, Lehnherr T, Rohde C, Lehnherr H, Klein G, Kehrenberg C. Impact of Bacteriophage-Supplemented Drinking Water on the E. coli Population in the Chicken Gut. Pathogens 2020; 9:E293. [PMID: 32316373 PMCID: PMC7238078 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9040293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2020] [Revised: 03/30/2020] [Accepted: 04/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Among intestinal coliform microbes in the broiler gut, there are potentially pathogenic Escherichia (E.) coli that can cause avian colibacillosis. The treatment with antibiotics favors the selection of multidrug-resistant bacteria and an alternative to this treatment is urgently required. A chicken model of intestinal colonization with an apathogenic model strain of E. coli was used to test if oral phage application can prevent or reduce the gut colonization of extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli variants in two individual experiments. The E. coli strain E28 was used as a model strain, which could be differentiated from other E. coli strains colonizing the broiler gut, and was susceptible to all cocktail phages applied. In the first trial, a mixture of six phages was continuously applied via drinking water. No reduction of the model E. coli strain E28 occurred, but phage replication could be demonstrated. In the second trial, the applied mixture was limited to the four phages, which showed highest efficacy in vitro. E. coli colonization was reduced in this trial, but again, no reduction of the E. coli strain E28 was observed. The results of the trials presented here can improve the understanding of the effect of phages on single strains in the multi-strain microbiota of the chicken gut.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Kittler
- Institute for Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Bischofsholer Damm 15, 30173 Hannover, Germany;
| | - Ruth Mengden
- Food Inspection, Animal Welfare and Veterinary Service of the Land of Bremen, Border Control Post Bremerhaven, Senator-Borttscheller-Straße 8, 27568 Bremerhaven, Germany;
| | - Imke H. E. Korf
- Leibniz Institute DSMZ—German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Inhoffenstraße 7B, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany; (I.H.E.K.); (J.W.); (C.R.)
| | - Anna Bierbrodt
- Institute for Hazardous Materials Research, Waldring 97, 44789 Bochum, Germany;
| | - Johannes Wittmann
- Leibniz Institute DSMZ—German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Inhoffenstraße 7B, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany; (I.H.E.K.); (J.W.); (C.R.)
| | - Madeleine Plötz
- Institute for Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Bischofsholer Damm 15, 30173 Hannover, Germany;
| | - Arne Jung
- Clinic for Poultry, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Bünteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany;
| | - Tatiana Lehnherr
- PTC Phage Technology Center GmbH, Siemensstraße 42, 59199 Bönen, Germany; (T.L.); (H.L.)
| | - Christine Rohde
- Leibniz Institute DSMZ—German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Inhoffenstraße 7B, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany; (I.H.E.K.); (J.W.); (C.R.)
| | - Hansjörg Lehnherr
- PTC Phage Technology Center GmbH, Siemensstraße 42, 59199 Bönen, Germany; (T.L.); (H.L.)
| | - Günter Klein
- Institute for Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Bischofsholer Damm 15, 30173 Hannover, Germany;
| | - Corinna Kehrenberg
- Institute for Veterinary Food Science, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Frankfurter Straße 92, 35392 Giessen, Germany;
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3
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Oduor JMO, Kadija E, Nyachieo A, Mureithi MW, Skurnik M. Bioprospecting Staphylococcus Phages with Therapeutic and Bio-Control Potential. Viruses 2020; 12:E133. [PMID: 31979276 PMCID: PMC7077315 DOI: 10.3390/v12020133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2019] [Revised: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria is a serious threat to the public health. This is also true for Staphylococcus aureus and other staphylococci. Staphylococcus phages Stab20, Stab21, Stab22, and Stab23, were isolated in Albania. Based on genomic and phylogenetic analysis, they were classified to genus Kayvirus of the subfamily Twortvirinae. In this work, we describe the in-depth characterization of the phages that electron microscopy confirmed to be myoviruses. These phages showed tolerance to pH range of 5.4 to 9.4, to maximum UV radiation energy of 25 µJ/cm2, to temperatures up to 45 °C, and to ethanol concentrations up to 25%, and complete resistance to chloroform. The adsorption rate constants of the phages ranged between 1.0 × 10-9 mL/min and 4.7 × 10-9 mL/min, and the burst size was from 42 to 130 plaque-forming units. The phages Stab20, 21, 22, and 23, originally isolated using Staphylococcusxylosus as a host, demonstrated varied host ranges among different Staphylococcus strains suggesting that they could be included in cocktail formulations for therapeutic or bio-control purpose. Phage particle proteomes, consisting on average of ca 60-70 gene products, revealed, in addition to straight-forward structural proteins, also the presence of enzymes such DNA polymerase, helicases, recombinases, exonucleases, and RNA ligase polymer. They are likely to be injected into the bacteria along with the genomic DNA to take over the host metabolism as soon as possible after infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph M. Ochieng’ Oduor
- KAVI—Institute of Clinical Research, College of Health Sciences, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box, Nairobi 19676–00202, Kenya;
- Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, Medicum, Human Microbiome Research Program, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, 00014 UH Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ermir Kadija
- Department of Biology-Chemistry, University of Shkodra “Luigj Gurakuqi”, 4001 Shkodra, Albania;
| | - Atunga Nyachieo
- Department of Reproductive Health & Biology, Phage Biology Section, Institute of Primate Research, P.O. Box, Karen-Nairobi 24481-00502, Kenya;
| | - Marianne W. Mureithi
- KAVI—Institute of Clinical Research, College of Health Sciences, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box, Nairobi 19676–00202, Kenya;
| | - Mikael Skurnik
- Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, Medicum, Human Microbiome Research Program, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, 00014 UH Helsinki, Finland
- Division of Clinical Microbiology, Helsinki University Hospital, HUSLAB, 00029 HUS Helsinki, Finland
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Campylobacter Phage Isolation and Characterization: What We Have Learned So Far. Methods Protoc 2019; 2:mps2010018. [PMID: 31164600 PMCID: PMC6481058 DOI: 10.3390/mps2010018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2019] [Revised: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Lytic Campylobacter phages, which can be used to combat this pathogen in animals and on food products, have been studied for more than 30 years. Though, due to some peculiarities of the phages, which hampered their isolation and particularly their molecular analysis for a long time, progress in this research field was rather slow. Meanwhile, the situation has changed and much more is known about the biology and genetics of those phages. In this article, we address specific issues that should be considered when Campylobacter phages are studied, starting with the isolation and propagation of the phages and ending with a thorough characterization including whole-genome sequencing. The basis for advice and recommendations given here is a careful review of the scientific literature and experiences that we have had ourselves with Campylobacter phages.
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El-Shibiny A, El-Sahhar S. Bacteriophages: the possible solution to treat infections caused by pathogenic bacteria. Can J Microbiol 2017; 63:865-879. [PMID: 28863269 DOI: 10.1139/cjm-2017-0030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Since their discovery in 1915, bacteriophages have been used to treat bacterial infections in animals and humans because of their unique ability to infect their specific bacterial hosts without affecting other bacterial populations. The research carried out in this field throughout the 20th century, largely in Georgia, part of USSR and Poland, led to the establishment of phage therapy protocols. However, the discovery of penicillin and sulfonamide antibiotics in the Western World during the 1930s was a setback in the advancement of phage therapy. The misuse of antibiotics has reduced their efficacy in controlling pathogens and has led to an increase in the number of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. As an alternative to antibiotics, bacteriophages have become a topic of interest with the emergence of multidrug-resistant bacteria, which are a threat to public health. Recent studies have indicated that bacteriophages can be used indirectly to detect pathogenic bacteria or directly as biocontrol agents. Moreover, they can be used to develop new molecules for clinical applications, vaccine production, drug design, and in the nanomedicine field via phage display.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayman El-Shibiny
- University of Science and Technology, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Sheikh Zayed District, 12588, Giza, Egypt.,University of Science and Technology, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Sheikh Zayed District, 12588, Giza, Egypt
| | - Salma El-Sahhar
- University of Science and Technology, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Sheikh Zayed District, 12588, Giza, Egypt.,University of Science and Technology, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Sheikh Zayed District, 12588, Giza, Egypt
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Weber-Dąbrowska B, Jończyk-Matysiak E, Żaczek M, Łobocka M, Łusiak-Szelachowska M, Górski A. Bacteriophage Procurement for Therapeutic Purposes. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:1177. [PMID: 27570518 PMCID: PMC4981656 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.01177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2016] [Accepted: 07/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacteriophages (phages), discovered 100 years ago, are able to infect and destroy only bacterial cells. In the current crisis of antibiotic efficacy, phage therapy is considered as a supplementary or even alternative therapeutic approach. Evolution of multidrug-resistant and pandrug-resistant bacterial strains poses a real threat, so it is extremely important to have the possibility to isolate new phages for therapeutic purposes. Our phage laboratory and therapy center has extensive experience with phage isolation, characterization, and therapeutic application. In this article we present current progress in bacteriophages isolation and use for therapeutic purposes, our experience in this field and its practical implications for phage therapy. We attempt to summarize the state of the art: properties of phages, the methods for their isolation, criteria of phage selection for therapeutic purposes and limitations of their use. Perspectives for the use of genetically engineered phages to specifically target bacterial virulence-associated genes are also briefly presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beata Weber-Dąbrowska
- Bacteriophage Laboratory, Ludwik Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of SciencesWroclaw, Poland; Phage Therapy Unit, Ludwik Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of SciencesWroclaw, Poland
| | - Ewa Jończyk-Matysiak
- Bacteriophage Laboratory, Ludwik Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Maciej Żaczek
- Bacteriophage Laboratory, Ludwik Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Małgorzata Łobocka
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of SciencesWarsaw, Poland; Autonomous Department of Microbial Biology, Faculty of Agriculture and Biology, Warsaw University of Life SciencesWarsaw, Poland
| | - Marzanna Łusiak-Szelachowska
- Bacteriophage Laboratory, Ludwik Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Andrzej Górski
- Bacteriophage Laboratory, Ludwik Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of SciencesWroclaw, Poland; Phage Therapy Unit, Ludwik Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of SciencesWroclaw, Poland; Department of Clinical Immunology, Transplantation Institute, Medical University of WarsawWarsaw, Poland
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Hammerl JA, Jäckel C, Alter T, Janzcyk P, Stingl K, Knüver MT, Hertwig S. Reduction of Campylobacter jejuni in broiler chicken by successive application of group II and group III phages. PLoS One 2014; 9:e114785. [PMID: 25490713 PMCID: PMC4260947 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0114785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2014] [Accepted: 11/13/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Bacteriophage treatment is a promising tool to reduce Campylobacter in chickens. Several studies have been published where group II or group III phages were successfully applied. However, these two groups of phages are different regarding their host ranges and host cell receptors. Therefore, a concerted activity of group II and group III phages might enhance the efficacy of a treatment and decrease the number of resistant bacteria. RESULTS In this study we have compared the lytic properties of some group II and group III phages and analysed the suitability of various phages for a reduction of C. jejuni in broiler chickens. We show that group II and group III phages exhibit different kinetics of infection. Two group III and one group II phage were selected for animal experiments and administered in different combinations to three groups of chickens, each containing ten birds. While group III phage CP14 alone reduced Campylobacter counts by more than 1 log10 unit, the concomitant administration of a second group III phage (CP81) did not yield any reduction, probably due to the development of resistance induced by this phage. One group of chickens received phage CP14 and, 24 hours later, group II phage CP68. In this group of animals, Campylobacter counts were reduced by more than 3 log10 units. CONCLUSION The experiments illustrated that Campylobacter phage cocktails have to be carefully composed to achieve the best results.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Stefan Hertwig
- Bundesinstitut für Risikobewertung, Berlin, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Kittler S, Fischer S, Abdulmawjood A, Glünder G, Klein G. Colonisation of a phage susceptible Campylobacter jejuni population in two phage positive broiler flocks. PLoS One 2014; 9:e94782. [PMID: 24733154 PMCID: PMC3986380 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0094782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2013] [Accepted: 03/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The pathogens Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli are commensals in the poultry intestine and campylobacteriosis is one of the most frequent foodborne diseases in developed and developing countries. Phages were identified to be effective in reducing intestinal Campylobacter load and this was evaluated, in the first field trials which were recently carried out. The aim of this study was to further investigate Campylobacter population dynamics during phage application on a commercial broiler farm. This study determines the superiority in colonisation of a Campylobacter type found in a field trial that was susceptible to phages in in vitro tests. The colonisation factors, i.e. motility and gamma glutamyl transferase activity, were increased in this type. The clustering in phylogenetic comparisons of MALDI-TOF spectra did not match the ST, biochemical phenotype and phage susceptibility. Occurrence of Campylobacter jejuni strains and phage susceptibility types with different colonisation potential seem to play a very important role in the success of phage therapy in commercial broiler houses. Thus, mechanisms of both, phage susceptibility and Campylobacter colonisation should be further investigated and considered when composing phage cocktails.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Kittler
- Institute of Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Samuel Fischer
- Clinic for Poultry, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Amir Abdulmawjood
- Institute of Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Gerhard Glünder
- Clinic for Poultry, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Günter Klein
- Institute of Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
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Kittler S, Fischer S, Abdulmawjood A, Glünder G, Klein G. Effect of bacteriophage application on Campylobacter jejuni loads in commercial broiler flocks. Appl Environ Microbiol 2013; 79:7525-33. [PMID: 24077703 PMCID: PMC3837725 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02703-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2013] [Accepted: 09/20/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Campylobacteriosis is the most frequent food-borne human enteritis. The major source for infection with Campylobacter spp. is broiler meat. Risk assessments consider the reduction of Campylobacter in primary production to be most beneficial for human health. The aim of this study was to test the efficacy of a bacteriophage application under commercial conditions which had proved to be effective in previous noncommercial studies under controlled experimental conditions. A phage cocktail for Campylobacter reduction was tested on three commercial broiler farms each with a control and an experimental group. Colonization of Campylobacter was confirmed prior to phage application in fecal samples. Subsequently, a phage cocktail was applied via drinking water in the experimental group (log10 5.8 to 7.5 PFU/bird). One day after phage application, Campylobacter counts of one experimental group were reduced under the detection limit (<50 CFU/g, P=0.0140) in fecal samples. At slaughter, a significant reduction of >log10 3.2 CFU/g cecal content compared to the control was still detected (P=0.0011). No significant reduction was observed in the experimental groups of the other trials. However, a significant drop in cecal Campylobacter counts occurred in a phage-contaminated control. These results suggest that maximum reduction of Campylobacter at the slaughterhouse might be achieved by phage application 1 to 4 days prior to slaughter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Kittler
- Institute for Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Samuel Fischer
- Clinic for Poultry, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Amir Abdulmawjood
- Institute for Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Gerhard Glünder
- Clinic for Poultry, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Günter Klein
- Institute for Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
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Fischer S, Kittler S, Klein G, Glünder G. Impact of a single phage and a phage cocktail application in broilers on reduction of Campylobacter jejuni and development of resistance. PLoS One 2013; 8:e78543. [PMID: 24205254 PMCID: PMC3804501 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0078543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2013] [Accepted: 09/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Campylobacteriosis is currently the most frequent foodborne zoonosis in many countries. One main source is poultry. The aim of this study was to enhance the knowledge about the potential of bacteriophages in reducing colonization of broilers with Campylobacter , as there are only a few in vivo studies published. Commercial broilers were inoculated with 10⁴ CFU/bird of a Campylobacter jejuni field strain. Groups of 88 birds each were subsequently treated with a single phage or a four-phage cocktail (10⁷ PFU/bird in CaCO₃ buffered SM-Buffer). Control birds received the solvent only. Afterwards, subgroups of eleven birds each were examined for their loads with phages and Campylobacter on day 1, 3, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35 and 42 after phage application. The susceptibility of the Campylobacter population to phage infection was determined using ten isolates per bird. In total 4180 re-isolates were examined. The study demonstrated that the deployed phages persisted over the whole investigation period. The Campylobacter load was permanently reduced by the phage-cocktail as well as by the single phage. The reduction was significant between one and four weeks after treatment and reached a maximum of log₁₀ 2.8 CFU/g cecal contents. Phage resistance rates of initially up to 43% in the single phage treated group and 24% in the cocktail treated group later stabilized at low levels. The occurrence of phage resistance influenced but did not override the Campylobacter reducing effect. Regarding the reduction potential, the cocktail treatment had only a small advantage over the singe phage treatment directly after phage administration. However, the cocktail moderated and delayed the emergence of phage resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Fischer
- Clinic for Poultry, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Lower Saxony, Germany
| | - Sophie Kittler
- Institute of Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Lower Saxony, Germany
| | - Günter Klein
- Institute of Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Lower Saxony, Germany
| | - Gerhard Glünder
- Clinic for Poultry, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Lower Saxony, Germany
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