Chromosome segregation impacts on cell growth and division site selection in Corynebacterium glutamicum

Cell wall synthesizing complexes in Mycobacteriales

Members of the order Mycobacteriales are distinguished by a characteristic diderm cell envelope, setting them apart from other Actinobacteria species. In addition to the conventional peptidoglycan cell wall, these organisms feature an extra polysaccharide polymer composed of arabinose and galactose, termed arabinogalactan. The nonreducing ends of arabinose are covalently linked to mycolic acids (MAs), forming the immobile inner leaflet of the highly hydrophobic MA membrane. The contiguous outer leaflet of the MA membrane comprises trehalose mycolates and various lipid species. Similar to all actinobacteria, Mycobacteriales exhibit apical growth, facilitated by a polar localized elongasome complex. A septal cell envelope synthesis machinery, the divisome, builds instead of the cell wall structures during cytokinesis. In recent years, a growing body of knowledge has emerged regarding the cell wall synthesizing complexes of Mycobacteriales., focusing particularly on three model species: Corynebacterium glutamicum, Mycobacterium smegmatis, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Propidium Monoazide-Treated, Cell-Direct, Quantitative PCR for Detecting Viable Chloramphenicol-Resistant Escherichia coli and Corynebacterium glutamicum Cells

With the rapid development and commercialization of industrial genetically modified microorganisms (GMMs), public concerns regarding their potential effects are on the rise. It is imperative to promptly monitor the unintended release of viable GMMs into wastewater, the air, and the surrounding ecosystems to prevent the risk of horizontal gene transfer to native microorganisms. In this study, we have developed a method that combines propidium monoazide (PMA) with a dual-plex quantitative PCR (qPCR) approach based on TaqMan probes. This method targets the chloramphenicol-resistant gene (CmR) along with the endogenous genes D-1-deoxyxylulose 5-phosphate synthase (dxs) and chromosomal replication initiator protein (dnaA). It allows for the direct quantitative detection of viable genetically modified Escherichia coli and Corynebacterium glutamicum cells, eliminating the requirement for DNA isolation. The dual-plex qPCR targeting CmR/dxs and CmR/dnaA demonstrated excellent performance across various templates, including DNA, cultured cells, and PMA-treated cells. Repeatability and precision, defined as RSDr% and bias%, respectively, were calculated and found to fall within the acceptable limits specified by the European Network of GMO Laboratories (ENGL). Through PMA-qPCR assays, we determined the detection limits for viable chloramphenicol-resistant E. coli and C. glutamicum strains to be 20 and 51 cells, respectively, at a 95% confidence level. Notably, this method demonstrated superior sensitivity compared to Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), which has a detection limit exceeding 1000 viable cells for both GM bacterial strains. This approach offers the potential to accurately and efficiently detect viable cells of GMMs, providing a time-saving and cost-effective solution.

Septum site placement in Mycobacteria - identification and characterisation of mycobacterial homologues of Escherichia coli MinD

A major virulence trait of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tb) is its ability to enter a dormant state within its human host. Since cell division is intimately linked to metabolic shut down, understanding the mechanism of septum formation and its integration with other events in the division pathway is likely to offer clues to the molecular basis of dormancy. The M. tb genome lacks obvious homologues of several conserved cell division proteins, and this study was aimed at identifying and functionally characterising mycobacterial homologues of the E. coli septum site specification protein MinD (Ec MinD). Sequence homology based analyses suggested that the genomes of both M. tb and the saprophyte Mycobacterium smegmatis (M. smegmatis) encode two putative Ec MinD homologues - Rv1708/MSMEG_3743 and Rv3660c/ MSMEG_6171. Of these, Rv1708/MSMEG_3743 were found to be the true homologues, through complementation of the E. coli ∆minDE mutant HL1, overexpression studies, and structural comparisons. Rv1708 and MSMEG_3743 fully complemented the mini-cell phenotype of HL1, and over-expression of MSMEG_3743 in M. smegmatis led to cell elongation and a drastic decrease in c.f.u. counts, indicating its essentiality in cell-division. MSMEG_3743 displayed ATPase activity, consistent with its containing a conserved Walker A motif. Interaction of Rv1708 with the chromosome associated proteins ScpA and ParB, implied a link between its septum formation role, and chromosome segregation. Comparative structural analyses showed Rv1708 to be closer in similarity to Ec MinD than Rv3660c. In summary we identify Rv1708 and MSMEG_3743 to be homologues of Ec MinD, adding a critical missing piece to the mycobacterial cell division puzzle.

The soil bacterium, Corynebacterium glutamicum, from biosynthesis of value-added products to bioremediation: A master of many trades

Ever since its discovery in 1957, Corynebacterium glutamicum has become a well-established industrial strain and is known for its massive capability of producing various amino acids (like L-lysine and L-glutamate) and other value-added chemicals. With the rising demand for these bio-based products, the revelation of the whole genome sequences of the wild type strains, and the astounding advancements made in the fields of metabolic engineering and systems biology, our perspective of C. glutamicum has been revolutionized and has expanded our understanding of its strain development. With these advancements, a new era for C. glutamicum supremacy in the field of industrial biotechnology began. This led to remarkable progress in the enhancement of tailor-made over-producing strains and further development of the substrate spectrum of the bacterium, to easily accessible, economical, and renewable resources. C. glutamicum has also been metabolically engineered and used in the degradation/assimilation of highly toxic and ubiquitous environmental contaminant, arsenic, present in water or soil. Here, we review the history, current knowledge, progress, achievements, and future trends relating to the versatile metabolic factory, C. glutamicum. This review paper is devoted to C. glutamicum which is one of the leading industrial microbes, and one of the most promising and versatile candidates to be developed. It can be used not only as a platform microorganism to produce different value-added chemicals and recombinant proteins, but also as a tool for bioremediation, allowing to enhance specific properties, for example in situ bioremediation.

Single-cell growth inference of Corynebacterium glutamicum reveals asymptotically linear growth

Regulation of growth and cell size is crucial for the optimization of bacterial cellular function. So far, single bacterial cells have been found to grow predominantly exponentially, which implies the need for tight regulation to maintain cell size homeostasis. Here, we characterize the growth behavior of the apically growing bacterium Corynebacterium glutamicum using a novel broadly applicable inference method for single-cell growth dynamics. Using this approach, we find that C. glutamicum exhibits asymptotically linear single-cell growth. To explain this growth mode, we model elongation as being rate-limited by the apical growth mechanism. Our model accurately reproduces the inferred cell growth dynamics and is validated with elongation measurements on a transglycosylase deficient ΔrodA mutant. Finally, with simulations we show that the distribution of cell lengths is narrower for linear than exponential growth, suggesting that this asymptotically linear growth mode can act as a substitute for tight division length and division symmetry regulation.

Corynebacterium glutamicum Regulation beyond Transcription: Organizing Principles and Reconstruction of an Extended Regulatory Network Incorporating Regulations Mediated by Small RNA and Protein-Protein Interactions

Corynebacterium glutamicum is a Gram-positive bacterium found in soil where the condition changes demand plasticity of the regulatory machinery. The study of such machinery at the global scale has been challenged by the lack of data integration. Here, we report three regulatory network models for C. glutamicum: strong (3040 interactions) constructed solely with regulations previously supported by directed experiments; all evidence (4665 interactions) containing the strong network, regulations previously supported by nondirected experiments, and protein-protein interactions with a direct effect on gene transcription; sRNA (5222 interactions) containing the all evidence network and sRNA-mediated regulations. Compared to the previous version (2018), the strong and all evidence networks increased by 75 and 1225 interactions, respectively. We analyzed the system-level components of the three networks to identify how they differ and compared their structures against those for the networks of more than 40 species. The inclusion of the sRNA-mediated regulations changed the proportions of the system-level components and increased the number of modules but decreased their size. The C. glutamicum regulatory structure contrasted with other bacterial regulatory networks. Finally, we used the strong networks of three model organisms to provide insights and future directions of the C.glutamicum regulatory network characterization.

Chromosome Segregation Proteins as Coordinators of Cell Cycle in Response to Environmental Conditions

Chromosome segregation is a crucial stage of the cell cycle. In general, proteins involved in this process are DNA-binding proteins, and in most bacteria, ParA and ParB are the main players; however, some bacteria manage this process by employing other proteins, such as condensins. The dynamic interaction between ParA and ParB drives movement and exerts positioning of the chromosomal origin of replication (oriC) within the cell. In addition, both ParA and ParB were shown to interact with the other proteins, including those involved in cell division or cell elongation. The significance of these interactions for the progression of the cell cycle is currently under investigation. Remarkably, DNA binding by ParA and ParB as well as their interactions with protein partners conceivably may be modulated by intra- and extracellular conditions. This notion provokes the question of whether chromosome segregation can be regarded as a regulatory stage of the cell cycle. To address this question, we discuss how environmental conditions affect chromosome segregation and how segregation proteins influence other cell cycle processes.

CdbA is a DNA-binding protein and c-di-GMP receptor important for nucleoid organization and segregation in Myxococcus xanthus

Cyclic di-GMP (c-di-GMP) is a second messenger that modulates multiple responses to environmental and cellular signals in bacteria. Here we identify CdbA, a DNA-binding protein of the ribbon-helix-helix family that binds c-di-GMP in Myxococcus xanthus. CdbA is essential for viability, and its depletion causes defects in chromosome organization and segregation leading to a block in cell division. The protein binds to the M. xanthus genome at multiple sites, with moderate sequence specificity; however, its depletion causes only modest changes in transcription. The interactions of CdbA with c-di-GMP and DNA appear to be mutually exclusive and residue substitutions in CdbA regions important for c-di-GMP binding abolish binding to both c-di-GMP and DNA, rendering these protein variants non-functional in vivo. We propose that CdbA acts as a nucleoid-associated protein that contributes to chromosome organization and is modulated by c-di-GMP, thus revealing a link between c-di-GMP signaling and chromosome biology.

The second messenger c-di-GMP modulates multiple responses to environmental and cellular signals in bacteria. Here, Skotnicka et al. identify a protein that binds c-di-GMP and contributes to chromosome organization and segregation in Myxococcus xanthus, with DNA-binding activity regulated by c-di-GMP.

Chromosome organization by a conserved condensin-ParB system in the actinobacterium Corynebacterium glutamicum

Higher-order chromosome folding and segregation are tightly regulated in all domains of life. In bacteria, details on nucleoid organization regulatory mechanisms and function remain poorly characterized, especially in non-model species. Here, we investigate the role of DNA-partitioning protein ParB and SMC condensin complexes in the actinobacterium Corynebacterium glutamicum. Chromosome conformation capture reveals SMC-mediated long-range interactions around ten centromere-like parS sites clustered at the replication origin (oriC). At least one oriC-proximal parS site is necessary for reliable chromosome segregation. We use chromatin immunoprecipitation and photoactivated single-molecule localization microscopy to show the formation of distinct, parS-dependent ParB-nucleoprotein subclusters. We further show that SMC/ScpAB complexes, loaded via ParB at parS sites, mediate chromosomal inter-arm contacts (as previously shown in Bacillus subtilis). However, the MukBEF-like SMC complex MksBEFG does not contribute to chromosomal DNA-folding; instead, this complex is involved in plasmid maintenance and interacts with the polar oriC-tethering factor DivIVA. Our results complement current models of ParB-SMC/ScpAB crosstalk and show that some condensin complexes evolved functions that are apparently uncoupled from chromosome folding.

The regulation of higher-order chromosome folding and segregation in bacteria is poorly understood. Here, Böhm et al. provide insights into the roles of DNA partitioning protein ParB and SMC condensin complexes in Corynebacterium glutamicum.

Rhodoccoccus erythropolis Is Different from Other Members of Actinobacteria: Monoploidy, Overlapping Replication Cycle, and Unique Segregation Pattern

Among actinomycetes, chromosome organization and segregation studies have been limited to Streptomyces coelicolor, Corynebacterium glutamicum, and Mycobacterium spp. There are differences with respect to ploidy and chromosome organization pattern in these bacteria. Here, we report on chromosome replication, organization, and segregation in Rhodococcus erythropolis PR4, which has a circular genome of 6.5 Mbp. The origin of replication of R. erythropolis PR4 was identified, and the DNA content in the cell under different growth conditions was determined. Our results suggest that the number of origins increases as the growth medium becomes rich, suggesting an overlapping replication cell cycle in this bacterium. Subcellular localization of the origin region revealed polar positioning in minimal and rich media. The terminus, which is the last region to be replicated and segregated, was found to be localized at the cell center in large cells. The middle markers corresponding to the 1.5-Mb and 4.7-Mb loci did not overlap, suggesting discontinuity in the segregation of the two arms of the chromosome. Chromosome segregation was not affected by inhibiting cell division. Deletion of parA or parB affected chromosome segregation. Unlike in C. glutamicum and Streptomyces spp., diploidy or polyploidy was not observed in R. erythropolis PR4. Our results suggest that R. erythropolis is different from other members of Actinobacteria; it is monoploid and has a unique chromosome segregation pattern. This is the first report on chromosome organization, replication, and segregation in R. erythropolis PR4.IMPORTANCE Rhodococci are highly versatile Gram-positive bacteria with high bioremediation potential. Some rhodococci are pathogenic and have been suggested as emerging threats. No studies on the replication, segregation, and cell cycle of these bacteria have been reported. Here, we demonstrate that the genus Rhodococcus is different from other actinomycetes, such as members of the genera Corynebacterium, Mycobacterium, and Streptomyces, with respect to ploidy and chromosome organization and segregation. Such studies will be useful not only in designing better therapeutics pathogenic strains in the future but also for studying genome maintenance in strains used for bioremediation.

¡vIVA la DivIVA!

Reproduction in the bacterial kingdom predominantly occurs through binary fission-a process in which one parental cell is divided into two similarly sized daughter cells. How cell division, in conjunction with cell elongation and chromosome segregation, is orchestrated by a multitude of proteins has been an active area of research spanning the past few decades. Together, the monumental endeavors of multiple laboratories have identified several cell division and cell shape regulators as well as their underlying regulatory mechanisms in rod-shaped Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis, which serve as model organisms for Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, respectively. Yet our understanding of bacterial cell division and morphology regulation is far from complete, especially in noncanonical and non-rod-shaped organisms. In this review, we focus on two proteins that are highly conserved in Gram-positive organisms, DivIVA and its homolog GpsB, and attempt to summarize the recent advances in this area of research and discuss their various roles in cell division, cell growth, and chromosome segregation in addition to their interactome and posttranslational regulation.

Competition between DivIVA and the nucleoid for ParA binding promotes segrosome separation and modulates mycobacterial cell elongation

Although mycobacteria are rod shaped and divide by simple binary fission, their cell cycle exhibits unusual features: unequal cell division producing daughter cells that elongate with different velocities, as well as asymmetric chromosome segregation and positioning throughout the cell cycle. As in other bacteria, mycobacterial chromosomes are segregated by pair of proteins, ParA and ParB. ParA is an ATPase that interacts with nucleoprotein ParB complexes – segrosomes and non‐specifically binds the nucleoid. Uniquely in mycobacteria, ParA interacts with a polar protein DivIVA (Wag31), responsible for asymmetric cell elongation, however the biological role of this interaction remained unknown. We hypothesised that this interaction plays a critical role in coordinating chromosome segregation with cell elongation. Using a set of ParA mutants, we determined that disruption of ParA‐DNA binding enhanced the interaction between ParA and DivIVA, indicating a competition between the nucleoid and DivIVA for ParA binding. Having identified the ParA mutation that disrupts its recruitment to DivIVA, we found that it led to inefficient segrosomes separation and increased the cell elongation rate. Our results suggest that ParA modulates DivIVA activity. Thus, we demonstrate that the ParA‐DivIVA interaction facilitates chromosome segregation and modulates cell elongation.

Bacterial Cell Division: Nonmodels Poised to Take the Spotlight

The last three decades have witnessed an explosion of discoveries about the mechanistic details of binary fission in model bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, and Caulobacter crescentus. This was made possible not only by advances in microscopy that helped answer questions about cell biology but also by clever genetic manipulations that directly and easily tested specific hypotheses. More recently, research using understudied organisms, or nonmodel systems, has revealed several alternate mechanistic strategies that bacteria use to divide and propagate. In this review, we highlight new findings and compare these strategies to cell division mechanisms elucidated in model organisms.

Chromosome segregation drives division site selection in Streptococcus pneumoniae

Accurate spatial and temporal positioning of the tubulin-like protein FtsZ is key for proper bacterial cell division. Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) is an oval-shaped, symmetrically dividing opportunistic human pathogen lacking the canonical systems for division site control (nucleoid occlusion and the Min-system). Recently, the early division protein MapZ was identified and implicated in pneumococcal division site selection. We show that MapZ is important for proper division plane selection; thus, the question remains as to what drives pneumococcal division site selection. By mapping the cell cycle in detail, we show that directly after replication both chromosomal origin regions localize to the future cell division sites, before FtsZ. Interestingly, Z-ring formation occurs coincidently with initiation of DNA replication. Perturbing the longitudinal chromosomal organization by mutating the condensin SMC, by CRISPR/Cas9-mediated chromosome cutting, or by poisoning DNA decatenation resulted in mistiming of MapZ and FtsZ positioning and subsequent cell elongation. Together, we demonstrate an intimate relationship between DNA replication, chromosome segregation, and division site selection in the pneumococcus, providing a simple way to ensure equally sized daughter cells.

Novel Chromosome Organization Pattern in Actinomycetales-Overlapping Replication Cycles Combined with Diploidy

Bacteria regulate chromosome replication and segregation tightly with cell division to ensure faithful segregation of DNA to daughter generations. The underlying mechanisms have been addressed in several model species. It became apparent that bacteria have evolved quite different strategies to regulate DNA segregation and chromosomal organization. We have investigated here how the actinobacterium Corynebacterium glutamicum organizes chromosome segregation and DNA replication. Unexpectedly, we found that C. glutamicum cells are at least diploid under all of the conditions tested and that these organisms have overlapping C periods during replication, with both origins initiating replication simultaneously. On the basis of experimental data, we propose growth rate-dependent cell cycle models for C. glutamicum.

Bacterial cell cycles are known for few model organisms and can vary significantly between species. Here, we studied the cell cycle of Corynebacterium glutamicum, an emerging cell biological model organism for mycolic acid-containing bacteria, including mycobacteria. Our data suggest that C. glutamicum carries two pole-attached chromosomes that replicate with overlapping C periods, thus initiating a new round of DNA replication before the previous one is terminated. The newly replicated origins segregate to midcell positions, where cell division occurs between the two new origins. Even after long starvation or under extremely slow-growth conditions, C. glutamicum cells are at least diploid, likely as an adaptation to environmental stress that may cause DNA damage. The cell cycle of C. glutamicum combines features of slow-growing organisms, such as polar origin localization, and fast-growing organisms, such as overlapping C periods.

Orderly Replication and Segregation of the Four Replicons of Burkholderia cenocepacia J2315

Bacterial genomes typically consist of a single chromosome and, optionally, one or more plasmids. But whole-genome sequencing reveals about ten per-cent of them to be multipartite, with additional replicons which by size and indispensability are considered secondary chromosomes. This raises the questions of how their replication and partition is managed without compromising genome stability and of how such genomes arose. Vibrio cholerae, with a 1 Mb replicon in addition to its 3 Mb chromosome, is the only species for which maintenance of a multipartite genome has been investigated. In this study we have explored the more complex genome of Burkholderia cenocepacia (strain J2315). It comprises an extra replicon (c2) of 3.21 Mb, comparable in size to the3.87Mb main chromosome (c1), another extra replicon(c3) of 0.87 Mb and a plasmid of 0.09 Mb. The replication origin of c1 is typically chromosomal and those of c2 and c3 are plasmid-like; all are replicated bidirectionally. Fluorescence microscopy of tagged origins indicates that all initiate replication at mid-cell and segregate towards the cell quarter positions sequentially, c1-c2-p1/c3. c2 segregation is as well-phased with the cell cycle as c1, implying that this plasmid-like origin has become subject to regulation not typical of plasmids; in contrast, c3 segregates more randomly through the cycle. Disruption of individual Par systems by deletion of parAB or by addition of parS sites showed each Par system to govern the positioning of its own replicon only. Inactivation of c1, c2 and c3 Par systems not only reduced growth rate, generated anucleate cells and compromised viability but influenced processes beyond replicon partition, notably regulation of replication, chromosome condensation and cell size determination. In particular, the absence of the c1 ParA protein altered replication of all three chromosomes, suggesting that the partition system of the main chromosome is a major participant in the choreography of the cell cycle.

Unlike higher organisms, bacteria typically carry their genetic information on a single chromosome. But in a few bacterial families the genome includes one to three additional chromosome-like DNA molecules. Because these families are rich in pathogenic and environmentally versatile species, it is important to understand how their split genomes evolved and how their maintenance is managed without confusion. We find that mitotic segregation (partition) of all three chromosomes of the cystic fibrosis type strain, Burkholderia cenocepacia J2315, proceeds from mid-cell to cell quarter positions, but that it occurs in a sequential manner, from largest chromosome to smallest. Positioning of each chromosome is specified solely by its own partition proteins. Nevertheless, the partition system of the largest chromosome appears also to play a global role in the cell cycle, by modulating the timing of initiation of replication. In addition, disrupting the partition systems of all three chromosomes induced specific cell abnormalities. Hence, although such bacteria are governed mainly by the largest, housekeeping chromosome, all the Par systems have insinuated themselves into cell cycle regulation to become indispensable for normal growth. Exploration of the underlying mechanisms should allow us to understand their full importance to bacterial life.

ParA and ParB coordinate chromosome segregation with cell elongation and division during Streptomyces sporulation

In unicellular bacteria, the ParA and ParB proteins segregate chromosomes and coordinate this process with cell division and chromosome replication. During sporulation of mycelial Streptomyces, ParA and ParB uniformly distribute multiple chromosomes along the filamentous sporogenic hyphal compartment, which then differentiates into a chain of unigenomic spores. However, chromosome segregation must be coordinated with cell elongation and multiple divisions. Here, we addressed the question of whether ParA and ParB are involved in the synchronization of cell-cycle processes during sporulation in Streptomyces To answer this question, we used time-lapse microscopy, which allows the monitoring of growth and division of single sporogenic hyphae. We showed that sporogenic hyphae stop extending at the time of ParA accumulation and Z-ring formation. We demonstrated that both ParA and ParB affect the rate of hyphal extension. Additionally, we showed that ParA promotes the formation of massive nucleoprotein complexes by ParB. We also showed that FtsZ ring assembly is affected by the ParB protein and/or unsegregated DNA. Our results indicate the existence of a checkpoint between the extension and septation of sporogenic hyphae that involves the ParA and ParB proteins.

Fluorescence Time-lapse Imaging of the Complete S. venezuelae Life Cycle Using a Microfluidic Device

Live-cell imaging of biological processes at the single cell level has been instrumental to our current understanding of the subcellular organization of bacterial cells. However, the application of time-lapse microscopy to study the cell biological processes underpinning development in the sporulating filamentous bacteria Streptomyces has been hampered by technical difficulties.

Here we present a protocol to overcome these limitations by growing the new model species, Streptomyces venezuelae, in a commercially available microfluidic device which is connected to an inverted fluorescence widefield microscope. Unlike the classical model species, Streptomyces coelicolor, S. venezuelae sporulates in liquid, allowing the application of microfluidic growth chambers to cultivate and microscopically monitor the cellular development and differentiation of S. venezuelae over long time periods. In addition to monitoring morphological changes, the spatio-temporal distribution of fluorescently labeled target proteins can also be visualized by time-lapse microscopy. Moreover, the microfluidic platform offers the experimental flexibility to exchange the culture medium, which is used in the detailed protocol to stimulate sporulation of S. venezuelae in the microfluidic chamber. Images of the entire S. venezuelae life cycle are acquired at specific intervals and processed in the open-source software Fiji to produce movies of the recorded time-series.

Single-Cell Analysis of Growth and Cell Division of the Anaerobe Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough

Recent years have seen significant progress in understanding basic bacterial cell cycle properties such as cell growth and cell division. While characterization and regulation of bacterial cell cycle is quite well-documented in the case of fast growing aerobic model organisms, no data has been so far reported for anaerobic bacteria. This lack of information in anaerobic microorganisms can mainly be explained by the absence of molecular and cellular tools such as single cell microscopy and fluorescent probes usable for anaerobes and essential to study cellular events and/or subcellular localization of the actors involved in cell cycle. In this study, single-cell microscopy has been adapted to study for the first time, in real time, the cell cycle of a bacterial anaerobe, Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough (DvH). This single-cell analysis provides mechanistic insights into the cell division cycle of DvH, which seems to be governed by the recently discussed so-called incremental model that generates remarkably homogeneous cell sizes. Furthermore, cell division was reversibly blocked during oxygen exposure. This may constitute a strategy for anaerobic cells to cope with transient exposure to oxygen that they may encounter in their natural environment, thereby contributing to their aerotolerance. This study lays the foundation for the first molecular, single-cell assay that will address factors that cannot otherwise be resolved in bulk assays and that will allow visualization of a wide range of molecular mechanisms within living anaerobic cells.

Cell cycle regulation by the bacterial nucleoid

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Nucleoid occlusion prevents cell division over the bacterial chromosome.

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Nucleoid occlusion factors identified in B. subtilis, E. coli and S. aureus.

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Noc and SlmA are sequence specific DNA-binding proteins.

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They both act as spatial and temporal regulators of cell division.

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Using some basic general principles bacteria employ diverse regulatory mechanisms.

Division site selection presents a fundamental challenge to all organisms. Bacterial cells are small and the chromosome (nucleoid) often fills most of the cell volume. Thus, in order to maximise fitness and avoid damaging the genetic material, cell division must be tightly co-ordinated with chromosome replication and segregation. To achieve this, bacteria employ a number of different mechanisms to regulate division site selection. One such mechanism, termed nucleoid occlusion, allows the nucleoid to protect itself by acting as a template for nucleoid occlusion factors, which prevent Z-ring assembly over the DNA. These factors are sequence-specific DNA-binding proteins that exploit the precise organisation of the nucleoid, allowing them to act as both spatial and temporal regulators of bacterial cell division. The identification of proteins responsible for this process has provided a molecular understanding of nucleoid occlusion but it has also prompted the realisation that substantial levels of redundancy exist between the diverse systems that bacteria employ to ensure that division occurs in the right place, at the right time.

Technical bias of microcultivation environments on single-cell physiology

Microscale cultivation systems are important tools to elucidate cellular dynamics beyond the population average and understand the functional architecture of single cells. However, there is scant knowledge about the bias of different microcultivation technologies on cellular functions. We therefore performed a systematic cross-platform comparison of three different microscale cultivation systems commonly harnessed in single-cell analysis: microfluidic non-contact cell traps driven by negative dielectrophoresis, microfluidic monolayer growth chambers, and semi-solid agarose pads. We assessed the specific single-cell growth rates, division rates and morphological characteristics of single Corynebacterium glutamicum cells and microcolonies as a bacterial model organism with medical and biotechnological relevance under standardized growth conditions. Strikingly, the specific single-cell and microcolony growth rates, μmax, were robust and conserved for several cell generations with all three microcultivation technologies, whereas the division rates of cells grown on agarose pads deviated by up to 50% from those of cells cultivated in negative dielectrophoresis traps and monolayer growth chambers. Furthermore, morphological characteristics like cell lengths and division symmetries of individual cells were affected when the cells were grown on agarose pads. This indicated a significant impact of solid cultivation supports on cellular traits. The results demonstrate the impact of microcultivation technology on microbial physiology for the first time and show the need for a careful selection and design of the microcultivation technology in order to allow unbiased analysis of cellular behavior.

Characterization of a Corynebacterium glutamicum dnaB mutant that shows temperature-sensitive growth and mini-cell formation

Corynebacterium glutamicum is known to perform a unique form of cell division called post-fission snapping division. In order to investigate the mechanism of cell division of this bacterium, we isolated temperature-sensitive mutants from C. glutamicum wild-type strain ATCC 31831, and found that one of them, M45, produced high frequencies of mini-cells with no nucleoids. Cell pairs composed of an elongated cell, with one nucleoid, connected to a mini-cell, with no nucleoids, were occasionally observed. The temperature sensitivity and mini-cell formation of M45 was complemented by a 2-kb DraI-EcoRI fragment derived from the ATCC 31831 chromosomal DNA, which carried a dnaB homolog encoding a replicative DNA helicase. DNA sequence analysis revealed that M45 carried a missense mutation in the dnaB gene, which caused a substitution of Thr364 to Ile. Microscopic observation after 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole staining revealed that the DNA content of single cells was decreased by culturing at the restrictive temperature, suggesting that the mutation affects chromosomal replication. These results suggest that the C. glutamicum dnaB mutant performs an asymmetric cell division even after DNA replication is inhibited, which results in the production of mini-cells.

Highly Deviated Asymmetric Division in Very Low Proportion of Mycobacterial Mid-log Phase Cells

In this study, we show that about 20% of the septating Mycobacterium smegmatis and Mycobacterium xenopi cells in the exponential phase populationdivideasymmetrically, with an unusually high deviation (17 ± 4%) in the division site from the median, to generate short cells and long cells, thereby generating population heterogeneity. This mode of division is very different from the symmetric division of themajority (about 80%) of the septating cells in the Mycobacterium smegmatis, Mycobacterium marinum, and Mycobacterium bovis BCG exponential phase population, with 5-10% deviation in the division site from the mid-cell site, as reported by recent studies. The short cells and the long cells further grew and divided to generate a population. We speculate that the generation of the short cells and the long cells through the highly deviated asymmetric divisionin the low proportions of mycobacterial population may have a role in stress tolerance.

Cell division in Corynebacterineae

Bacterial cells must coordinate a number of events during the cell cycle. Spatio-temporal regulation of bacterial cytokinesis is indispensable for the production of viable, genetically identical offspring. In many rod-shaped bacteria, precise midcell assembly of the division machinery relies on inhibitory systems such as Min and Noc. In rod-shaped Actinobacteria, for example Corynebacterium glutamicum and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the divisome assembles in the proximity of the midcell region, however more spatial flexibility is observed compared to Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis. Actinobacteria represent a group of bacteria that spatially regulate cytokinesis in the absence of recognizable Min and Noc homologs. The key cell division steps in E. coli and B. subtilis have been subject to intensive study and are well-understood. In comparison, only a minimal set of positive and negative regulators of cytokinesis are known in Actinobacteria. Nonetheless, the timing of cytokinesis and the placement of the division septum is coordinated with growth as well as initiation of chromosome replication and segregation. We summarize here the current knowledge on cytokinesis and division site selection in the Actinobacteria suborder Corynebacterineae.

The lipid II flippase RodA determines morphology and growth in Corynebacterium glutamicum

Lipid II flippases play an essential role in cell growth and the maintenance of cell shape in many rod-shaped bacteria. The putative lipid II flippase RodA is an integral membrane protein and member of the SEDS (shape, elongation, division and sporulation) protein family. In contrast to its homologues in Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis little is known about the role of RodA in actinobacteria. In this study, we describe the localization and function of RodA in Corynebacterium glutamicum, a rod-shaped, apically growing actinobacterium. RodA-GFP localizes exclusively at the cell poles. Surprisingly, time-lapse microscopy revealed that apical cell growth is sustained in a rodA deletion strain. However, growth rates and antibiotic susceptibility are altered. In the absence of RodA, it appears that apical growth is driven by lateral diffusion of lipid II that is likely flipped by the septal flippase, FtsW. Furthermore, we applied a previously described synthetic in vivo system in combination with FRET to identify an interaction between C. glutamicum RodA and the polar growth organizing protein DivIVA.

Prokaryotic cell division: flexible and diverse

Gram-negative rod-shaped bacteria have different approaches to position the cell division initiating Z-ring at the correct moment in their cell division cycle. The subsequent maturation into a functional division machine occurs in vastly different species in two steps with appreciable time in between these. The function of this time delay is unclear, but may partly be explained by competition for Lipid-II between proteins involved in length growth that interact directly with the Z-ring early in the maturation phase and the proteins involved in septum synthesis. A second possible activity of the early Z-ring might be the monitoring of or the active involvement in DNA segregation through proteins such as ZapA and ZapB/MatP and their homologues.