1
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Laquel P, Testet E, Tuphile K, Cullin C, Fouillen L, Bessoule JJ, Doignon F. Phosphoinositides containing stearic acid are required for interaction between Rho GTPases and the exocyst to control the late steps of polarised exocytosis. Traffic 2021; 23:120-136. [PMID: 34908215 DOI: 10.1111/tra.12829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Revised: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Cell polarity is achieved by regulators such as small G proteins, exocyst members and phosphoinositides, with the latter playing a key role when bound to the exocyst proteins Sec3p and Exo70p, and Rho GTPases. This ensures asymmetric growth via the routing of proteins and lipids to the cell surface using actin cables. Previously, using a yeast mutant for a lysophosphatidylinositol acyl transferase encoded by the PSI1 gene, we demonstrated the role of stearic acid in the acyl chain of phosphoinositides in cytoskeletal organisation and secretion. Here, we use a genetic approach to characterise the effect on late steps of the secretory pathway. The constitutive overexpression of PSI1 in mutants affecting kinases involved in the phosphoinositide pathway demonstrated the role of molecular species containing stearic acid in bypassing a lack of phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate PI(4)P at the plasma membrane, which is essential for the function of the Cdc42p module. Decreasing the levels of stearic acid-containing phosphoinositides modifies the environment of the actors involved in the control of late steps in the secretory pathway. This leads to decreased interactions between Exo70p and Sec3p, with Cdc42p, Rho1p and Rho3p, due to disruption of the GTP/GDP ratio of at least Rho1p and Rho3p GTPases, thereby preventing activation of the exocyst.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Laquel
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Laboratoire de Biogenèse Membranaire, UMR 5200, F-33140 Villenave d'Ornon, France
| | - E Testet
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Laboratoire de Biogenèse Membranaire, UMR 5200, F-33140 Villenave d'Ornon, France
| | - K Tuphile
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Laboratoire de Biogenèse Membranaire, UMR 5200, F-33140 Villenave d'Ornon, France
| | - C Cullin
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Biologie des Membranes & des Nano-objets, UMR 5248, Pessac, France
| | - L Fouillen
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Laboratoire de Biogenèse Membranaire, UMR 5200, F-33140 Villenave d'Ornon, France.,Metabolome Facility of Bordeaux, Functional Genomics Centre, F-33883 Villenave d'Ornon, France
| | - J J Bessoule
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Laboratoire de Biogenèse Membranaire, UMR 5200, F-33140 Villenave d'Ornon, France
| | - F Doignon
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Laboratoire de Biogenèse Membranaire, UMR 5200, F-33140 Villenave d'Ornon, France
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2
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Holič R, Šťastný D, Griač P. Sec14 family of lipid transfer proteins in yeasts. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2021; 1866:158990. [PMID: 34118432 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2021.158990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 06/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The hydrophobicity of lipids prevents their free movement across the cytoplasm. To achieve highly heterogeneous and precisely regulated lipid distribution in different cellular membranes, lipids are transported by lipid transfer proteins (LTPs) in addition to their transport by vesicles. Sec14 family is one of the most extensively studied groups of LTPs. Here we provide an overview of Sec14 family of LTPs in the most studied yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae as well as in other selected non-Saccharomyces yeasts-Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Kluyveromyces lactis, Candida albicans, Candida glabrata, Cryptococcus neoformans, and Yarrowia lipolytica. Discussed are specificities of Sec14-domain LTPs in various yeasts, their mode of action, subcellular localization, and physiological function. In addition, quite few Sec14 family LTPs are target of antifungal drugs, serve as modifiers of drug resistance or influence virulence of pathologic yeasts. Thus, they represent an important object of study from the perspective of human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roman Holič
- Institute of Animal Biochemistry and Genetics, Centre of Biosciences, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Dominik Šťastný
- Institute of Animal Biochemistry and Genetics, Centre of Biosciences, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Peter Griač
- Institute of Animal Biochemistry and Genetics, Centre of Biosciences, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia.
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3
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Fluorescence Turn‐on Synthetic Lipid Rafts on Supramolecular Sheets and Hierarchical Concanavalin A Assembly. Chem Asian J 2019; 14:952-957. [DOI: 10.1002/asia.201900122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2019] [Revised: 02/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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4
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Cavalier-Smith T. Kingdom Chromista and its eight phyla: a new synthesis emphasising periplastid protein targeting, cytoskeletal and periplastid evolution, and ancient divergences. PROTOPLASMA 2018; 255:297-357. [PMID: 28875267 PMCID: PMC5756292 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-017-1147-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2017] [Accepted: 07/18/2017] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
In 1981 I established kingdom Chromista, distinguished from Plantae because of its more complex chloroplast-associated membrane topology and rigid tubular multipartite ciliary hairs. Plantae originated by converting a cyanobacterium to chloroplasts with Toc/Tic translocons; most evolved cell walls early, thereby losing phagotrophy. Chromists originated by enslaving a phagocytosed red alga, surrounding plastids by two extra membranes, placing them within the endomembrane system, necessitating novel protein import machineries. Early chromists retained phagotrophy, remaining naked and repeatedly reverted to heterotrophy by losing chloroplasts. Therefore, Chromista include secondary phagoheterotrophs (notably ciliates, many dinoflagellates, Opalozoa, Rhizaria, heliozoans) or walled osmotrophs (Pseudofungi, Labyrinthulea), formerly considered protozoa or fungi respectively, plus endoparasites (e.g. Sporozoa) and all chromophyte algae (other dinoflagellates, chromeroids, ochrophytes, haptophytes, cryptophytes). I discuss their origin, evolutionary diversification, and reasons for making chromists one kingdom despite highly divergent cytoskeletons and trophic modes, including improved explanations for periplastid/chloroplast protein targeting, derlin evolution, and ciliary/cytoskeletal diversification. I conjecture that transit-peptide-receptor-mediated 'endocytosis' from periplastid membranes generates periplastid vesicles that fuse with the arguably derlin-translocon-containing periplastid reticulum (putative red algal trans-Golgi network homologue; present in all chromophytes except dinoflagellates). I explain chromist origin from ancestral corticates and neokaryotes, reappraising tertiary symbiogenesis; a chromist cytoskeletal synapomorphy, a bypassing microtubule band dextral to both centrioles, favoured multiple axopodial origins. I revise chromist higher classification by transferring rhizarian subphylum Endomyxa from Cercozoa to Retaria; establishing retarian subphylum Ectoreta for Foraminifera plus Radiozoa, apicomonad subclasses, new dinozoan classes Myzodinea (grouping Colpovora gen. n., Psammosa), Endodinea, Sulcodinea, and subclass Karlodinia; and ranking heterokont Gyrista as phylum not superphylum.
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5
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McClatchey ST, Wang Z, Linden LM, Hastie EL, Wang L, Shen W, Chen A, Chi Q, Sherwood DR. Boundary cells restrict dystroglycan trafficking to control basement membrane sliding during tissue remodeling. eLife 2016; 5. [PMID: 27661254 PMCID: PMC5061546 DOI: 10.7554/elife.17218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2016] [Accepted: 09/22/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Epithelial cells and their underlying basement membranes (BMs) slide along each other to renew epithelia, shape organs, and enlarge BM openings. How BM sliding is controlled, however, is poorly understood. Using genetic and live cell imaging approaches during uterine-vulval attachment in C. elegans, we have discovered that the invasive uterine anchor cell activates Notch signaling in neighboring uterine cells at the boundary of the BM gap through which it invades to promote BM sliding. Through an RNAi screen, we found that Notch activation upregulates expression of ctg-1, which encodes a Sec14-GOLD protein, a member of the Sec14 phosphatidylinositol-transfer protein superfamily that is implicated in vesicle trafficking. Through photobleaching, targeted knockdown, and cell-specific rescue, our results suggest that CTG-1 restricts BM adhesion receptor DGN-1 (dystroglycan) trafficking to the cell-BM interface, which promotes BM sliding. Together, these studies reveal a new morphogenetic signaling pathway that controls BM sliding to remodel tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Zheng Wang
- Center for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Union Hospital, Wuhan, China.,Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Union Hospital, Wuhan, China.,Development and Molecular Oncology Laboratory, Union Hospital, Wuhan, China
| | - Lara M Linden
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, United States
| | - Eric L Hastie
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, United States
| | - Lin Wang
- Center for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Union Hospital, Wuhan, China.,Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Wanqing Shen
- Center for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Union Hospital, Wuhan, China.,Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Alan Chen
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, United States
| | - Qiuyi Chi
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, United States
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6
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Marc Zingg
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Miami, Miami, Florida 33136-6129;
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7
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Phosphatidylinositol binding of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Pdr16p represents an essential feature of this lipid transfer protein to provide protection against azole antifungals. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2014; 1842:1483-90. [PMID: 25066473 PMCID: PMC4331669 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2014.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2014] [Revised: 06/25/2014] [Accepted: 07/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Pdr16p is considered a factor of clinical azole resistance in fungal pathogens. The most distinct phenotype of yeast cells lacking Pdr16p is their increased susceptibility to azole and morpholine antifungals. Pdr16p (also known as Sfh3p) of Saccharomyces cerevisiae belongs to the Sec14 family of phosphatidylinositol transfer proteins. It facilitates transfer of phosphatidylinositol (PI) between membrane compartments in in vitro systems. We generated Pdr16pE235A, K267A mutant defective in PI binding. This PI binding deficient mutant is not able to fulfill the role of Pdr16p in protection against azole and morpholine antifungals, providing evidence that PI binding is critical for Pdr16 function in modulation of sterol metabolism in response to these two types of antifungal drugs. A novel feature of Pdr16p, and especially of Pdr16pE235A, K267A mutant, to bind sterol molecules, is observed. Yeast Pdr16p binds phosphatidylinositol (PI) and cholesterol in lipid binding assay. Pdr16pE235A, K267A is defective in PI binding, it binds sterols instead of PI. Pdr16p defective in PI binding does not fulfill Pdr16p role in azole protection. PI binding of Pdr16p is critical for its function.
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8
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Zingg JM, Libinaki R, Meydani M, Azzi A. Modulation of phosphorylation of tocopherol and phosphatidylinositol by hTAP1/SEC14L2-mediated lipid exchange. PLoS One 2014; 9:e101550. [PMID: 24983950 PMCID: PMC4077815 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0101550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2014] [Accepted: 06/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The vitamin E derivative, alpha-tocopheryl phosphate (αTP), is detectable in cultured cells, plasma and tissues in small amounts, suggesting the existence of enzyme(s) with α-tocopherol (αT) kinase activity. Here, we characterize the production of αTP from αT and [γ-32P]-ATP in primary human coronary artery smooth muscle cells (HCA-SMC) using separation by thin layer chromatography (TLC) and subsequent analysis by Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography (UPLC). In addition to αT, although to a lower amount, also γT is phosphorylated. In THP-1 monocytes, γTP inhibits cell proliferation and reduces CD36 scavenger receptor expression more potently than αTP. Both αTP and γTP activate the promoter of the human vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) gene with similar potency, whereas αT and γT had no significant effect. The recombinant human tocopherol associated protein 1 (hTAP1, hSEC14L2) binds both αT and αTP and stimulates phosphorylation of αT possibly by facilitating its transport and presentation to a putative αT kinase. Recombinant hTAP1 reduces the in vitro activity of the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase gamma (PI3Kγ) indicating the formation of a stalled/inactive hTAP1/PI3Kγ heterodimer. The addition of αT, βT, γT, δT or αTP differentially stimulates PI3Kγ, suggesting facilitated egress of sequestered PI from hTAP1 to the enzyme. It is suggested that the continuous competitive exchange of different lipophilic ligands in hTAPs with cell enzymes and membranes may be a way to make these lipophiles more accessible as substrates for enzymes and as components of specific membrane domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Marc Zingg
- Vascular Biology Laboratory, JM USDA-Human Nutr. Res. Ctr. On Aging, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Roksan Libinaki
- Dept. Biochem. and Mol. Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Mohsen Meydani
- Vascular Biology Laboratory, JM USDA-Human Nutr. Res. Ctr. On Aging, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Angelo Azzi
- Vascular Biology Laboratory, JM USDA-Human Nutr. Res. Ctr. On Aging, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
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9
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Abstract
Lipids are unevenly distributed within and between cell membranes, thus defining organelle identity. Such distribution relies on local metabolic branches and mechanisms that move lipids. These processes are regulated by feedback mechanisms that decipher topographical information in organelle membranes and then regulate lipid levels or flows. In the endoplasmic reticulum, the major lipid source, transcriptional regulators and enzymes sense changes in membrane features to modulate lipid production. At the Golgi apparatus, lipid-synthesizing, lipid-flippase, and lipid-transport proteins (LTPs) collaborate to control lipid balance and distribution within the membrane to guarantee remodeling processes crucial for vesicular trafficking. Open questions exist regarding LTPs, which are thought to be lipid sensors that regulate lipid synthesis or carriers that transfer lipids between organelles across long distances or in contact sites. A novel model is that LTPs, by exchanging two different lipids, exploit one lipid gradient between two distinct membranes to build a second lipid gradient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Drin
- Institut de Pharmacologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, Université de Nice Sophia-Antipolis and CNRS, 06560 Valbonne, France;
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10
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Zauber H, Burgos A, Garapati P, Schulze WX. Plasma membrane lipid-protein interactions affect signaling processes in sterol-biosynthesis mutants in Arabidopsis thaliana. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2014; 5:78. [PMID: 24672530 PMCID: PMC3957024 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2014.00078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2013] [Accepted: 02/18/2014] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
The plasma membrane is an important organelle providing structure, signaling and transport as major biological functions. Being composed of lipids and proteins with different physicochemical properties, the biological functions of membranes depend on specific protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions. Interactions of proteins with their specific sterol and lipid environment were shown to be important factors for protein recruitment into sub-compartmental structures of the plasma membrane. System-wide implications of altered endogenous sterol levels for membrane functions in living cells were not studied in higher plant cells. In particular, little is known how alterations in membrane sterol composition affect protein and lipid organization and interaction within membranes. Here, we conducted a comparative analysis of the plasma membrane protein and lipid composition in Arabidopsis sterol-biosynthesis mutants smt1 and ugt80A2;B1. smt1 shows general alterations in sterol composition while ugt80A2;B1 is significantly impaired in sterol glycosylation. By systematically analyzing different cellular fractions and combining proteomic with lipidomic data we were able to reveal contrasting alterations in lipid-protein interactions in both mutants, with resulting differential changes in plasma membrane signaling status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrik Zauber
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant PhysiologyGolm, Germany
- Max-Delbrück-Centrum für Molekulare MedizinBerlin-Buch, Germany
| | - Asdrubal Burgos
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant PhysiologyGolm, Germany
| | | | - Waltraud X. Schulze
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant PhysiologyGolm, Germany
- Plant Systems Biology, University of HohenheimStuttgart, Germany
- *Correspondence: Waltraud X. Schulze, Plant Systems Biology, University of Hohenheim, Garbenstrasse 30, Stuttgart 70593, Germany e-mail:
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11
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Zauber H, Burgos A, Garapati P, Schulze WX. Plasma membrane lipid-protein interactions affect signaling processes in sterol-biosynthesis mutants in Arabidopsis thaliana. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2014; 5:78. [PMID: 24672530 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2014.00078014.00078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2013] [Accepted: 02/18/2014] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The plasma membrane is an important organelle providing structure, signaling and transport as major biological functions. Being composed of lipids and proteins with different physicochemical properties, the biological functions of membranes depend on specific protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions. Interactions of proteins with their specific sterol and lipid environment were shown to be important factors for protein recruitment into sub-compartmental structures of the plasma membrane. System-wide implications of altered endogenous sterol levels for membrane functions in living cells were not studied in higher plant cells. In particular, little is known how alterations in membrane sterol composition affect protein and lipid organization and interaction within membranes. Here, we conducted a comparative analysis of the plasma membrane protein and lipid composition in Arabidopsis sterol-biosynthesis mutants smt1 and ugt80A2;B1. smt1 shows general alterations in sterol composition while ugt80A2;B1 is significantly impaired in sterol glycosylation. By systematically analyzing different cellular fractions and combining proteomic with lipidomic data we were able to reveal contrasting alterations in lipid-protein interactions in both mutants, with resulting differential changes in plasma membrane signaling status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrik Zauber
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology Golm, Germany ; Max-Delbrück-Centrum für Molekulare Medizin Berlin-Buch, Germany
| | - Asdrubal Burgos
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology Golm, Germany
| | | | - Waltraud X Schulze
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology Golm, Germany ; Plant Systems Biology, University of Hohenheim Stuttgart, Germany
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12
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Muniasamy G, Pérez-Guevara F. Use of SNAREs for the immobilization of poly-3-hydroxyalkanoate polymerase type II of Pseudomonas putida CA-3 in secretory vesicles of Saccharomyces cerevisiae ATCC 9763. J Biotechnol 2013; 172:77-9. [PMID: 24368219 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2013.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2013] [Revised: 12/09/2013] [Accepted: 12/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) synthase, the key enzyme in polyester biosynthesis of bacteria, has been targeted to various organelles in yeasts and plants using respective signal peptides. Here, we report that the sequences derived from SNARE domains efficiently target and integrate the PHA synthase from Pseudomonas putida CA-3 to the membrane of secretory vesicles in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The studies with the enhanced green fluorescent protein confirm the localization of synthase enzyme in the vesicles of S. cerevisiae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gurusamy Muniasamy
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, México, D.F., Mexico
| | - Fermín Pérez-Guevara
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, México, D.F., Mexico; Nanoscience & Nanotechnology Program, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, México, D.F., Mexico.
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13
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Šimová Z, Poloncová K, Tahotná D, Holič R, Hapala I, Smith AR, White TC, Griač P. The yeastSaccharomyces cerevisiaePdr16p restricts changes in ergosterol biosynthesis caused by the presence of azole antifungals. Yeast 2013; 30:229-41. [DOI: 10.1002/yea.2956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2013] [Accepted: 04/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Zuzana Šimová
- Institute of Animal Biochemistry and Genetics; Slovak Academy of Sciences; Ivanka pri Dunaji; Slovakia
| | - Katarína Poloncová
- Institute of Animal Biochemistry and Genetics; Slovak Academy of Sciences; Ivanka pri Dunaji; Slovakia
| | - Dana Tahotná
- Institute of Animal Biochemistry and Genetics; Slovak Academy of Sciences; Ivanka pri Dunaji; Slovakia
| | - Roman Holič
- Institute of Animal Biochemistry and Genetics; Slovak Academy of Sciences; Ivanka pri Dunaji; Slovakia
| | - Ivan Hapala
- Institute of Animal Biochemistry and Genetics; Slovak Academy of Sciences; Ivanka pri Dunaji; Slovakia
| | - Adam R. Smith
- Division of Cell Biology and Biophysics; University of Missouri at Kansas City; Kansas City; MO; USA
| | - Theodore C. White
- Division of Cell Biology and Biophysics; University of Missouri at Kansas City; Kansas City; MO; USA
| | - Peter Griač
- Institute of Animal Biochemistry and Genetics; Slovak Academy of Sciences; Ivanka pri Dunaji; Slovakia
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