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Batuman O, Britt-Ugartemendia K, Kunwar S, Yilmaz S, Fessler L, Redondo A, Chumachenko K, Chakravarty S, Wade T. The Use and Impact of Antibiotics in Plant Agriculture: A Review. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2024; 114:885-909. [PMID: 38478738 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-10-23-0357-ia] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
Growers have depended on the specificity and efficacy of streptomycin and oxytetracycline as a part of their plant disease arsenal since the middle of the 20th century. With climate change intensifying plant bacterial epidemics, the established success of these antibiotics remains threatened. Our strong reliance on certain antibiotics for devastating diseases eventually gave way to resistance development. Although antibiotics in plant agriculture equal to less than 0.5% of overall antibiotic use in the United States, it is still imperative for humans to continue to monitor usage, environmental residues, and resistance in bacterial populations. This review provides an overview of the history and use, resistance and mitigation, regulation, environmental impact, and economics of antibiotics in plant agriculture. Bacterial issues, such as the ongoing Huanglongbing (citrus greening) epidemic in Florida citrus production, may need antibiotics for adequate control. Therefore, preserving the efficacy of our current antibiotics by utilizing more targeted application methods, such as trunk injection, should be a major focus. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY 4.0 International license.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ozgur Batuman
- Department of Plant Pathology, Southwest Florida Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Immokalee, FL
| | - Kellee Britt-Ugartemendia
- Department of Plant Pathology, Southwest Florida Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Immokalee, FL
| | - Sanju Kunwar
- Department of Plant Pathology, Southwest Florida Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Immokalee, FL
| | - Salih Yilmaz
- Department of Plant Pathology, Southwest Florida Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Immokalee, FL
| | - Lauren Fessler
- Department of Plant Pathology, Southwest Florida Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Immokalee, FL
| | - Ana Redondo
- Department of Plant Pathology, Southwest Florida Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Immokalee, FL
| | - Kseniya Chumachenko
- Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - Shourish Chakravarty
- Department of Food and Resource Economics, Southwest Florida Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Immokalee, FL
| | - Tara Wade
- Department of Food and Resource Economics, Southwest Florida Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Immokalee, FL
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Islam T, Haque MA, Barai HR, Istiaq A, Kim JJ. Antibiotic Resistance in Plant Pathogenic Bacteria: Recent Data and Environmental Impact of Unchecked Use and the Potential of Biocontrol Agents as an Eco-Friendly Alternative. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 13:1135. [PMID: 38674544 PMCID: PMC11054394 DOI: 10.3390/plants13081135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Revised: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
The economic impact of phytopathogenic bacteria on agriculture is staggering, costing billions of US dollars globally. Pseudomonas syringae is the top most phytopathogenic bacteria, having more than 60 pathovars, which cause bacteria speck in tomatoes, halo blight in beans, and so on. Although antibiotics or a combination of antibiotics are used to manage infectious diseases in plants, they are employed far less in agriculture compared to human and animal populations. Moreover, the majority of antibiotics used in plants are immediately washed away, leading to environmental damage to ecosystems and food chains. Due to the serious risk of antibiotic resistance (AR) and the potential for environmental contamination with antibiotic residues and resistance genes, the use of unchecked antibiotics against phytopathogenic bacteria is not advisable. Despite the significant concern regarding AR in the world today, there are inadequate and outdated data on the AR of phytopathogenic bacteria. This review presents recent AR data on plant pathogenic bacteria (PPB), along with their environmental impact. In light of these findings, we suggest the use of biocontrol agents as a sustainable, eco-friendly, and effective alternative to controlling phytopathogenic bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarequl Islam
- Department of Microbiology, Noakhali Science and Technology University, Sonapur, Noakhali 3814, Bangladesh;
| | - Md Azizul Haque
- Department of Biotechnology, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea;
| | - Hasi Rani Barai
- School of Mechanical and IT Engineering, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea;
| | - Arif Istiaq
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Genetics and Genomic Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO 63110-1010, USA
| | - Jong-Joo Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea;
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Jaithon T, Atichakaro T, Phonphoem W, T-Thienprasert J, Sreewongchai T, T-Thienprasert NP. Potential usage of biosynthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles from mangosteen peel ethanol extract to inhibit Xanthomonas oryzae and promote rice growth. Heliyon 2024; 10:e24076. [PMID: 38234900 PMCID: PMC10792570 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e24076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 12/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
In recent decades, the biosynthesis of nanoparticles using biological agents, such as plant extracts, has grown in popularity due to their environmental and economic benefits. Therefore, this study investigated into utilizing ethanol crude extract sourced from mangosteen peel for the synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) and assessing their efficacy against the rice blight pathogen (Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae) through antibacterial evaluations. Additionally, the effects of the synthesized ZnO NPs on rice plant growth was investigated. The X-ray diffraction analysis revealed the production of wurtzite ZnO NPs under specific synthesis conditions, exhibiting a crystallite size of 38.71 nm (or 387.122 Å) without any contamination. Analysis of the ultraviolet-visible optical absorption spectrum indicated a characteristic absorption peak at 363 nm, suggesting a calculated band gap energy of 2.88 eV for the ZnO NPs. Furthermore, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis confirmed the presence of active compounds functional groups from mangosteen peel in the synthesized ZnO NPs. These biosynthesized ZnO NPs demonstrated significant inhibition of X. oryzae pv. oryzae growth, exhibiting an in vitro 50 % inhibitory concentration (IC50) value of 1.895 mg/mL and a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) value of 4 mg/mL. The ZnO NPs treatments at two-fold IC50 values significantly enhanced root length, dry biomass, and chlorophyll a content in rice plants. Consequently, the results demonstrated the potential application of biosynthesized ZnO NPs from mangosteen peel extract in green agriculture, as an alternative to excessive antibiotic use, for combating bacterial plant diseases, and for enhancing plant growth.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Thamonwan Atichakaro
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Wannarat Phonphoem
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Jiraroj T-Thienprasert
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Thailand Center of Excellence in Physics, Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Tanee Sreewongchai
- Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
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Verhaegen M, Bergot T, Liebana E, Stancanelli G, Streissl F, Mingeot-Leclercq MP, Mahillon J, Bragard C. On the use of antibiotics to control plant pathogenic bacteria: a genetic and genomic perspective. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1221478. [PMID: 37440885 PMCID: PMC10333595 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1221478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite growing attention, antibiotics (such as streptomycin, oxytetracycline or kasugamycin) are still used worldwide for the control of major bacterial plant diseases. This raises concerns on their potential, yet unknown impact on antibiotic and multidrug resistances and the spread of their genetic determinants among bacterial pathogens. Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) have been identified in plant pathogenic bacteria (PPB), with streptomycin resistance genes being the most commonly reported. Therefore, the contribution of mobile genetic elements (MGEs) to their spread among PPB, as well as their ability to transfer to other bacteria, need to be further explored. The only well-documented example of ARGs vector in PPB, Tn5393 and its highly similar variants (carrying streptomycin resistance genes), is concerning because of its presence outside PPB, in Salmonella enterica and Klebsiella pneumoniae, two major human pathogens. Although its structure among PPB is still relatively simple, in human- and animal-associated bacteria, Tn5393 has evolved into complex associations with other MGEs and ARGs. This review sheds light on ARGs and MGEs associated with PPB, but also investigates the potential role of antibiotic use in resistance selection in plant-associated bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Verhaegen
- Laboratory of Food and Environmental Microbiology, Earth and Life Institute, Catholic University of Louvain (UCLouvain), Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Thomas Bergot
- Laboratory of Food and Environmental Microbiology, Earth and Life Institute, Catholic University of Louvain (UCLouvain), Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | | | | | | | - Marie-Paule Mingeot-Leclercq
- Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology Unit, Louvain Drug Research Institute, UCLouvain, Woluwe-Saint-Lambert, Belgium
| | - Jacques Mahillon
- Laboratory of Food and Environmental Microbiology, Earth and Life Institute, Catholic University of Louvain (UCLouvain), Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Claude Bragard
- Plant Health Laboratory, Earth and Life Institute, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
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Chen P, Yu K, He Y. The dynamics and transmission of antibiotic resistance associated with plant microbiomes. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2023; 176:107986. [PMID: 37257204 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2023.107986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) have been widely found and studied in soil and water environments. However, the propagation of ARGs in plant microbiomes has attracted insufficient attention. Plant microbiomes, especially the rhizosphere microorganisms, are closely connected with water, soil, and air, which allows ARGs to spread widely in ecosystems and pose a threat to human health after entering the human body with bacteria. Therefore, it is necessary to deeply understand and explore the dynamics and the transmission of ARGs in rhizosphere microorganisms and endophytes of plants. In this review, the transmission and influencing factors of ARGs in the microorganisms associated with plants, especially the influence of root exudates on plant microbiomes, are analyzed. Notably, the role of intrinsic genes of plants in determining root exudates and their potential effects on ARGs are proposed and analyzed. The important role of phyllosphere microorganisms and endophytes in the transmission of ARGs and co-resistance of antibiotics and other substances are also emphasized. The proliferation and transmission of ARGs associated with plant microbiomes addressed in this review is conducive to revealing the fate of ARGs in plant microorganisms and alleviating ARG pollution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Chen
- School of Environmental Science & Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Kaifeng Yu
- School of Environmental Science & Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Yiliang He
- School of Environmental Science & Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, China.
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Jiang H, Li C, Huang X, Ahmed T, Ogunyemi SO, Yu S, Wang X, Ali HM, Khan F, Yan C, Chen J, Li B. Phage combination alleviates bacterial leaf blight of rice ( Oryza sativa L.). FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1147351. [PMID: 37152174 PMCID: PMC10155274 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1147351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Rice bacterial leaf blight (BLB) is the most destructive bacterial diseases caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo). Phages have been proposed as a green and efficient strategy to kill bacterial pathogens in crops, however, the mechanism of action of phages in the control of phyllosphere bacterial diseases remain unclear. Here, the glasshouse pot experiment results showed that phage combination could reduce the disease index by up to 64.3%. High-throughput sequencing technology was used to analyze the characteristics of phyllosphere microbiome changes and the results showed that phage combinations restored the impact of pathogen invasion on phyllosphere communities to a certain extent, and increased the diversity of bacterial communities. In addition, the phage combination reduced the relative abundance of epiphytic and endophytic Xoo by 58.9% and 33.9%, respectively. In particular, Sphingomonas and Stenotrophomonas were more abundant. According to structural equation modeling, phage combination directly and indirectly affected the disease index by affecting pathogen Xoo biomass and phage resistance. In summary, phage combination could better decrease the disease index. These findings provide new insights into phage biological control of phyllosphere bacterial diseases, theoretical data support, and new ideas for agricultural green prevention and control of phyllosphere diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hubiao Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Changxin Li
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Biology and Control of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, China
| | - Xuefang Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Temoor Ahmed
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Solabomi Olaitan Ogunyemi
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Shanhong Yu
- Taizhou Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Taizhou, China
| | - Xiao Wang
- Ningbo Jiangbei District Agricultural Technology Extension Service Station, Ningbo, China
| | - Hayssam M. Ali
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Fahad Khan
- Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS, Australia
| | - Chengqi Yan
- Institute of Biotechnology, Ningbo Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Ningbo, China
| | - Jianping Chen
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-products, Key Laboratory of Biotechnology in Plant Protection of Ministry of Agriculture and Zhejiang Province, Institute of Plant Virology, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Bin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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7
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Lee MH, Ham H, Choi HW, Park DS. Isolation of Streptomycin-Resistant Erwinia pyrifoliae in Korea. PLANT DISEASE 2023; 107:616-619. [PMID: 35852904 DOI: 10.1094/pdis-03-22-0553-sc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
As a black shoot blight disease-causing agent, Erwinia pyrifoliae was first reported in 1995 in Korea. A total of 101 isolates of E. pyrifoliae were isolated from samples showing bacterial symptoms collected from apple and pear orchards between 2020 and 2021. These isolates were screened for streptomycin resistance, with one from an orchard in Gwangju showing resistance at 100 μg/ml streptomycin. This streptomycin-resistant E. pyrifoliae (EpSmR) isolate was identified via polymerase chain reaction amplification of the strA/strB gene and an internal region of the ribosomal rpsL gene containing codon 43. EpSmR has a point mutation that altered this codon from lysine (AAA) to threonine (ACA). The strA and strB genes were not identified in EpSmR. EpSmR showed a high resistance to streptomycin (>50,000 μg/ml). This is the first study reporting EpSmR, which emerged due to a mutation in codon 43 of the rpsL gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- M-H Lee
- Crop Protection Division, National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Wanju 55365, Republic of Korea
| | - H Ham
- Crop Protection Division, National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Wanju 55365, Republic of Korea
| | - H-W Choi
- Crop Protection Division, National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Wanju 55365, Republic of Korea
| | - D S Park
- Crop Protection Division, National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Wanju 55365, Republic of Korea
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8
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An R, Qi Y, Zhang XX, Ma L. Xenogenetic evolutionary of integrons promotes the environmental pollution of antibiotic resistance genes - Challenges, progress and prospects. WATER RESEARCH 2023; 231:119629. [PMID: 36689882 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.119629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Revised: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Environmental pollution of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) has been a great public concern. Integrons, as mobile genetic elements, with versatile gene acquisition systems facilitate the horizontal gene transfer (HGT) and pollution disseminations of ARGs. However, little is understood about the characteristics of ARGs mediated by integrons, which hampers our monitoring and control of the mobile antimicrobial resistance risks. To address these issues, we reviewed 3,322 publications concerning detection methods and pipeline, ARG diversity and evolutionary progress, environmental and geographical distribution, bacterial hosts, gene cassettes arrangements, and based on which to identify ARGs with high risk levels mediated by integrons. Diverse ARGs of 516 subtypes attributed to 12 types were capable of being carried by integrons, with 62 core ARG subtypes prevalent in pollution source, natural and human-related environments. Hosts of ARG-carrying integrons reached 271 bacterial species, most frequently carried by opportunistic pathogens Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Moreover, the observed emergence of ARGs together with their multiple arrangements indicated the accumulation of ARGs mediated by integrons, and thus pose increasing HGT risks under modern selective agents. With the concerns of public health, we urgently call for a better monitoring and control of these high-risk ARGs. Our identified Risk Rank I ARGs (aacA7, blaOXA10, catB3, catB8, dfrA5) with high mobility, reviewed key trends and noteworthy advancements, and proposed future directions could be reference and guidance for standard formulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ran An
- School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, PR China
| | - Yuting Qi
- School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, PR China
| | - Xu-Xiang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, PR China
| | - Liping Ma
- School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, PR China.
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Guan Y, Lin M, Shen P, Zou Z. Alanine-mediated P cycle boosting enhances the killing efficiency of kasugamycin on antibiotic-resistant Xanthomonas oryzae. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1160702. [PMID: 37143533 PMCID: PMC10151481 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1160702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The outbreak of Bacterial blight (BB) caused by Xanthomonas oryzae (Xoo) generates substantial economic losses to agricultural production. Antibiotics application is a valuable measure to control this bacterial disease. However, microbial antibiotic resistance dramatically reduced antibiotic effectiveness. Identifying the resistance mechanism of Xoo to antibiotics and restoring antibiotic susceptibility is one of the crucial ways to solve this problem. This study employed a GC-MS-based metabolomic approach to reveal the differential metabolomics between a kasugamycin-susceptible Xoo strain (Z173-S) and a kasugamycin-resistant strain (Z173-RKA). The metabolic mechanism of kasugamycin (KA) resistance in Xoo by GC-MS showed that the downregulation of the pyruvate cycle (P cycle) is a crucial feature of Z173-RKA resistance to KA. This conclusion was confirmed by the decreased enzyme activities and the related gene transcriptional level in the P cycle. Furfural (an inhibitor of pyruvate dehydrogenase) can effectively inhibit the P cycle and increase the resistance of Z173-RKA to KA. Moreover, exogenous alanine can reduce the resistance of Z173-RKA to KA by promoting the P cycle. Our work seems to be the first exploration of the mechanism of KA resistance in Xoo by GC-MS-based metabonomics approach. These results provide a new idea for developing metabolic regulation to address KA resistance in Xoo.
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Deploying Viruses against Phytobacteria: Potential Use of Phage Cocktails as a Multifaceted Approach to Combat Resistant Bacterial Plant Pathogens. Viruses 2022; 14:v14020171. [PMID: 35215763 PMCID: PMC8879233 DOI: 10.3390/v14020171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Plants in nature are under the persistent intimidation of severe microbial diseases, threatening a sustainable food production system. Plant-bacterial pathogens are a major concern in the contemporary era, resulting in reduced plant growth and productivity. Plant antibiotics and chemical-based bactericides have been extensively used to evade plant bacterial diseases. To counteract this pressure, bacteria have evolved an array of resistance mechanisms, including innate and adaptive immune systems. The emergence of resistant bacteria and detrimental consequences of antimicrobial compounds on the environment and human health, accentuates the development of an alternative disease evacuation strategy. The phage cocktail therapy is a multidimensional approach effectively employed for the biocontrol of diverse resistant bacterial infections without affecting the fauna and flora. Phages engage a diverse set of counter defense strategies to undermine wide-ranging anti-phage defense mechanisms of bacterial pathogens. Microbial ecology, evolution, and dynamics of the interactions between phage and plant-bacterial pathogens lead to the engineering of robust phage cocktail therapeutics for the mitigation of devastating phytobacterial diseases. In this review, we highlight the concrete and fundamental determinants in the development and application of phage cocktails and their underlying mechanism, combating resistant plant-bacterial pathogens. Additionally, we provide recent advances in the use of phage cocktail therapy against phytobacteria for the biocontrol of devastating plant diseases.
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Rahman MU, Wang W, Sun Q, Shah JA, Li C, Sun Y, Li Y, Zhang B, Chen W, Wang S. Endolysin, a Promising Solution against Antimicrobial Resistance. Antibiotics (Basel) 2021; 10:1277. [PMID: 34827215 PMCID: PMC8614784 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics10111277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global crisis for human public health which threatens the effective prevention and control of ever-increasing infectious diseases. The advent of pandrug-resistant bacteria makes most, if not all, available antibiotics invalid. Meanwhile, the pipeline of novel antibiotics development stagnates, which prompts scientists and pharmacists to develop unconventional antimicrobials. Bacteriophage-derived endolysins are cell wall hydrolases which could hydrolyze the peptidoglycan layer from within and outside of bacterial pathogens. With high specificity, rapid action, high efficiency, and low risk of resistance development, endolysins are believed to be among the best alternative therapeutic agents to treat multidrug resistant (MDR) bacteria. As of now, endolysins have been applied to diverse aspects. In this review, we comprehensively introduce the structures and activities of endolysins and summarize the latest application progress of recombinant endolysins in the fields of medical treatment, pathogen diagnosis, food safety, and agriculture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mujeeb ur Rahman
- Key Laboratory of Resources Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi’an 710069, China; (M.u.R.); (Q.S.); (C.L.); (Y.S.); (Y.L.)
| | - Weixiao Wang
- Clinical Research Center, The Second Hospital of Nanjing, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210003, China;
| | - Qingqing Sun
- Key Laboratory of Resources Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi’an 710069, China; (M.u.R.); (Q.S.); (C.L.); (Y.S.); (Y.L.)
| | - Junaid Ali Shah
- College of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, China;
| | - Chao Li
- Key Laboratory of Resources Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi’an 710069, China; (M.u.R.); (Q.S.); (C.L.); (Y.S.); (Y.L.)
| | - Yanmei Sun
- Key Laboratory of Resources Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi’an 710069, China; (M.u.R.); (Q.S.); (C.L.); (Y.S.); (Y.L.)
| | - Yuanrui Li
- Key Laboratory of Resources Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi’an 710069, China; (M.u.R.); (Q.S.); (C.L.); (Y.S.); (Y.L.)
| | - Bailing Zhang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang 330006, China;
| | - Wei Chen
- Clinical Research Center, The Second Hospital of Nanjing, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210003, China;
| | - Shiwei Wang
- Key Laboratory of Resources Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi’an 710069, China; (M.u.R.); (Q.S.); (C.L.); (Y.S.); (Y.L.)
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12
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Lee YS, Kim GH, Koh YJ, Jung JS. Identification of strA-strB Genes in Streptomycin-Resistant Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae Biovar 2 Strains Isolated in Korea. THE PLANT PATHOLOGY JOURNAL 2021; 37:489-493. [PMID: 34847635 PMCID: PMC8632614 DOI: 10.5423/ppj.nt.05.2021.0078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial canker is a devastating disease of kiwifruit caused by the bacterium Pseudomonas syringe pv. actinidiae. Canker disease of kiwifruit in Korea has been controlled using streptomycin for more than two decades. Four streptomycin-resistant strains, belonging to biovar 2, which are found only in Korea, were collected between 2013 and 2014 from different orchards located in Jeju, Korea. The genetic background for streptomycin resistance among P. syringe pv. actinidiae strains were determined by examining the presence of strA-strB or aadA, which are genes frequently found in streptomycin-resistant bacteria, and a point mutation at codon 43 in the rpsL gene. All four streptomycin-resistant strains of P. syringe pv. actinidiae investigated in this study contained strA-strB as a resistant determinant. The presence of the aadA gene and a mutation in codon 43 of the rpsL gene was not identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Sun Lee
- Department of Biology, Sunchon National University, Suncheon 57922, Korea
| | - Gyoung Hee Kim
- Department of Plant Medicine, Sunchon National University, Suncheon 57922, Korea
| | - Young Jin Koh
- Department of Plant Medicine, Sunchon National University, Suncheon 57922, Korea
| | - Jae Sung Jung
- Department of Biology, Sunchon National University, Suncheon 57922, Korea
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Srivastava V, Deblais L, Kathayat D, Rotondo F, Helmy YA, Miller SA, Rajashekara G. Novel Small Molecule Growth Inhibitors of Xanthomonas spp. Causing Bacterial Spot of Tomato. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2021; 111:940-953. [PMID: 34311554 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-08-20-0341-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial spot (BS) of tomato, caused by Xanthomonas gardneri, X. perforans, X. vesicatoria, and X. euvesicatoria, is difficult to control because of the high prevalence of copper- and streptomycin-resistant strains and the lack of resistance cultivars and effective bactericides. The objective of this study was to identify novel growth inhibitors of BS-causing Xanthomonas (BS-X) species by using small molecules (SM; n = 4,182). Several SMs (X1, X2, X5, X9, X12, and X16) completely inhibited the growth of BS-X isolates (n = 68 X. gardneri, 55 X. perforans, 4 X. vesicatoria, and 32 X. euvesicatoria) at ≥12.5 µM by disrupting Xanthomonas cell integrity through weakening of the cell membrane and formation of pores. These SMs were also effective against biofilm-embedded, copper- and streptomycin-resistant Xanthomonas strains while having minimal impact on other plant pathogenic (n = 20) and beneficial bacteria (n = 12). Furthermore, these SMs displayed equivalent antimicrobial activity against BS-X in seeds and X. gardneri in seedlings compared with conventional control methods (copper sulfate and streptomycin) at similar concentrations while having no detectable toxicity to tomato tissues. SMs X2, X5, and X12 reduced X. gardneri, X. perforans, X. vesicatoria, and X. euvesicatoria populations in artificially infested seeds ≤3.4-log CFU/seed 1 day postinfection (dpi) compared with the infested untreated control (P ≤ 0.05). SMs X1, X2, X5, and X12 reduced disease severity ≤72% and engineered bioluminescent X. gardneri populations ≤3.0-log CFU/plant in infected seedlings at 7 dpi compared with the infected untreated control (P ≤ 0.05). Additional studies are needed to increase the applicability of these SMs for BS management in tomato production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vishal Srivastava
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH
| | - Loic Deblais
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH
| | - Dipak Kathayat
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH
| | - Francesca Rotondo
- Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH
| | - Yosra A Helmy
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH
| | - Sally A Miller
- Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH
| | - Gireesh Rajashekara
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH
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14
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Kering KK, Kibii BJ, Wei H. Biocontrol of phytobacteria with bacteriophage cocktails. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2019; 75:1775-1781. [PMID: 30624034 DOI: 10.1002/ps.5324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2018] [Revised: 01/01/2019] [Accepted: 01/02/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Crop loss due to plant pathogens has provoked renewed interest in bacteriophages as a feasible biocontrol strategy of plant diseases. Phage cocktails in particular present a viable option for broadening the phage host range, limiting the emergence of bacterial resistance while maintaining the lytic activity of the phages. It is therefore important that the design used to formulate a phage cocktail should result in the most effective cocktail against the pathogen. It is also critical that certain factors are considered during the formulation and application of a phage cocktail: their stability, the production time and cost of complex cocktails, the potential impact on untargeted bacteria, the timing of phage application, and the persistence in the plant environment. Continuous monitoring is required to ensure that the efficacy of a cocktail is sustained due to the dynamic nature of phages. Although phage cocktails are considered as a plausible biocontrol strategy of phytobacteria, more research needs to be done to understand the complex interaction between phages and bacteria in the plant environment, and to overcome the technical obstacles. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelvin K Kering
- Key Laboratory of Special Pathogens and Biosafety, Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Belindah J Kibii
- Key Laboratory of Special Pathogens and Biosafety, Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Hongping Wei
- Key Laboratory of Special Pathogens and Biosafety, Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, China
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15
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Abstract
Antibiotics have been used for the management of relatively few bacterial plant diseases and are largely restricted to high-value fruit crops because of the expense involved. Antibiotic resistance in plant-pathogenic bacteria has become a problem in pathosystems where these antibiotics have been used for many years. Where the genetic basis for resistance has been examined, antibiotic resistance in plant pathogens has most often evolved through the acquisition of a resistance determinant via horizontal gene transfer. For example, the strAB streptomycin-resistance genes occur in Erwinia amylovora, Pseudomonas syringae, and Xanthomonas campestris, and these genes have presumably been acquired from nonpathogenic epiphytic bacteria colocated on plant hosts under antibiotic selection. We currently lack knowledge of the effect of the microbiome of commensal organisms on the potential of plant pathogens to evolve antibiotic resistance. Such knowledge is critical to the development of robust resistance management strategies to ensure the safe and effective continued use of antibiotics in the management of critically important diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- George W Sundin
- Department of Plant, Soil, and Microbial Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA;
| | - Nian Wang
- Citrus Research and Education Center, Department of Microbiology and Cell Science, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Lake Alfred, Florida 33850, USA
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16
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Love MJ, Bhandari D, Dobson RCJ, Billington C. Potential for Bacteriophage Endolysins to Supplement or Replace Antibiotics in Food Production and Clinical Care. Antibiotics (Basel) 2018; 7:E17. [PMID: 29495476 PMCID: PMC5872128 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics7010017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2017] [Revised: 02/06/2018] [Accepted: 02/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
There is growing concern about the emergence of bacterial strains showing resistance to all classes of antibiotics commonly used in human medicine. Despite the broad range of available antibiotics, bacterial resistance has been identified for every antimicrobial drug developed to date. Alarmingly, there is also an increasing prevalence of multidrug-resistant bacterial strains, rendering some patients effectively untreatable. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop alternatives to conventional antibiotics for use in the treatment of both humans and food-producing animals. Bacteriophage-encoded lytic enzymes (endolysins), which degrade the cell wall of the bacterial host to release progeny virions, are potential alternatives to antibiotics. Preliminary studies show that endolysins can disrupt the cell wall when applied exogenously, though this has so far proven more effective in Gram-positive bacteria compared with Gram-negative bacteria. Their potential for development is furthered by the prospect of bioengineering, and aided by the modular domain structure of many endolysins, which separates the binding and catalytic activities into distinct subunits. These subunits can be rearranged to create novel, chimeric enzymes with optimized functionality. Furthermore, there is evidence that the development of resistance to these enzymes may be more difficult compared with conventional antibiotics due to their targeting of highly conserved bonds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Love
- Biomolecular Interaction Centre and School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch 8041, New Zealand.
| | - Dinesh Bhandari
- Biomolecular Interaction Centre and School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch 8041, New Zealand.
- Institute of Environmental Science and Research, Christchurch 8041, New Zealand.
| | - Renwick C J Dobson
- Biomolecular Interaction Centre and School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch 8041, New Zealand.
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne 3052, Australia.
| | - Craig Billington
- Biomolecular Interaction Centre and School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch 8041, New Zealand.
- Institute of Environmental Science and Research, Christchurch 8041, New Zealand.
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17
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Gillings MR. Lateral gene transfer, bacterial genome evolution, and the Anthropocene. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2016; 1389:20-36. [DOI: 10.1111/nyas.13213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2016] [Revised: 07/20/2016] [Accepted: 07/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael R. Gillings
- Genes to Geoscience Research Centre, Department of Biological Sciences Macquarie University Sydney New South Wales Australia
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Abstract
Integrons are versatile gene acquisition systems commonly found in bacterial genomes. They are ancient elements that are a hot spot for genomic complexity, generating phenotypic diversity and shaping adaptive responses. In recent times, they have had a major role in the acquisition, expression, and dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes. Assessing the ongoing threats posed by integrons requires an understanding of their origins and evolutionary history. This review examines the functions and activities of integrons before the antibiotic era. It shows how antibiotic use selected particular integrons from among the environmental pool of these elements, such that integrons carrying resistance genes are now present in the majority of Gram-negative pathogens. Finally, it examines the potential consequences of widespread pollution with the novel integrons that have been assembled via the agency of human antibiotic use and speculates on the potential uses of integrons as platforms for biotechnology.
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Xu S, Pan X, Luo J, Wu J, Zhou Z, Liang X, He Y, Zhou M. Effects of phenazine-1-carboxylic acid on the biology of the plant-pathogenic bacterium Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2015; 117:39-46. [PMID: 25619910 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2014.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2014] [Revised: 09/10/2014] [Accepted: 10/06/2014] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) is the casual agent of bacterial blight, which is one of the most serious diseases of rice. The antibiotic phenazine-1-carboxylic acid (PCA), which is primarily produced by Pseudomonas spp., was found and previously reported very effective against Xoo. However, the biological effects of PCA on Xoo remain unclear. In this study, we found that PCA increased the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reduced the activities of catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) in Xoo. Xoo was more sensitive to H2O2 than Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzicola (Xoc), and had a much lower expression of CAT genes. In addition, proteomic analysis indicated that PCA inhibited carbohydrate metabolism and nutrient uptake in Xoo, and analysis of carbon source utilization further confirmed that carbohydrate metabolism in Xoo was repressed by PCA. In conclusion, PCA acted as a redox-cycling agent that disturbed the redox balance in Xoo and reduced CAT and SOD activities, resulting in higher accumulation of ROS, altered carbohydrate metabolism, and lower energy production and nutrient uptake. Moreover, a deficient antioxidant system in Xoo made it very sensitive to PCA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu Xu
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; Key Laboratory of Pesticide, Nanjing Agricultural University, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Xiayan Pan
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; Key Laboratory of Pesticide, Nanjing Agricultural University, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Jianying Luo
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; Key Laboratory of Pesticide, Nanjing Agricultural University, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Jian Wu
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; Key Laboratory of Pesticide, Nanjing Agricultural University, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Zehua Zhou
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; Key Laboratory of Pesticide, Nanjing Agricultural University, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Xiaoyu Liang
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; Key Laboratory of Pesticide, Nanjing Agricultural University, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Yawen He
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Mingguo Zhou
- College of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; Key Laboratory of Pesticide, Nanjing Agricultural University, Jiangsu Province, China.
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Andrade MO, Farah CS, Wang N. The post-transcriptional regulator rsmA/csrA activates T3SS by stabilizing the 5' UTR of hrpG, the master regulator of hrp/hrc genes, in Xanthomonas. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1003945. [PMID: 24586158 PMCID: PMC3937308 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2013] [Accepted: 01/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The RsmA/CsrA family of the post-transcriptional regulators of bacteria is involved in the regulation of many cellular processes, including pathogenesis. In this study, we demonstrated that rsmA not only is required for the full virulence of the phytopathogenic bacterium Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (XCC) but also contributes to triggering the hypersensitive response (HR) in non-host plants. Deletion of rsmA resulted in significantly reduced virulence in the host plant sweet orange and a delayed and weakened HR in the non-host plant Nicotiana benthamiana. Microarray, quantitative reverse-transcription PCR, western-blotting, and GUS assays indicated that RsmA regulates the expression of the type 3 secretion system (T3SS) at both transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. The regulation of T3SS by RsmA is a universal phenomenon in T3SS-containing bacteria, but the specific mechanism seems to depend on the interaction between a particular bacterium and its hosts. For Xanthomonads, the mechanism by which RsmA activates T3SS remains unknown. Here, we show that RsmA activates the expression of T3SS-encoding hrp/hrc genes by directly binding to the 5′ untranslated region (UTR) of hrpG, the master regulator of the hrp/hrc genes in XCC. RsmA stabilizes hrpG mRNA, leading to increased accumulation of HrpG proteins and subsequently, the activation of hrp/hrc genes. The activation of the hrp/hrc genes by RsmA via HrpG was further supported by the observation that ectopic overexpression of hrpG in an rsmA mutant restored its ability to cause disease in host plants and trigger HR in non-host plants. RsmA also stabilizes the transcripts of another T3SS-associated hrpD operon by directly binding to the 5′ UTR region. Taken together, these data revealed that RsmA primarily activates T3SS by acting as a positive regulator of hrpG and that this regulation is critical to the pathogenicity of XCC. Pathogenic bacteria demonstrate sophisticated capacity to regulate gene expression to meet requirements of living in different environmental niches, including in the hosts. The activation of the Type 3 secretion system (T3SS) genes in response to the host enviroment is under the control of several factors, such as the post-transcriptional regulator RsmA/CsrA. Here, we show that RsmA contributes to the pathogenicity of Xanthomonas citri in host plants and the HR-triggering activity in non-host plants by regulating the expression of T3SS-encoding hrp/hrc genes. RsmA directly interacts with the 5′ UTRs of hrpG and hrpD mRNAs, which leads to increased HrpG protein levels by stabilizing the hrpG transcript. Further, overexpression of hrpG in an rsmA mutant restored its pathogenicity and ability to cause HR. The deletion of rsmA did not affect the phosphorylation of HrpG, which is also required for T3SS activation. This work provides mechanistic insights for the first time into RsmA-mediated regulation of T3SS gene expression by acting as a positive regulator of hrpG at the post-transcription level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxuel O. Andrade
- Citrus Research and Education Center, Department of Microbiology and Cell Sciences, University of Florida, Lake Alfred, Florida, United States of America
| | - Chuck S. Farah
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Nian Wang
- Citrus Research and Education Center, Department of Microbiology and Cell Sciences, University of Florida, Lake Alfred, Florida, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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21
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Osman KM, Hassan WMM, Mohamed RAH. The consequences of a sudden demographic change on the seroprevalence pattern, virulence genes, identification and characterisation of integron-mediated antibiotic resistance in the Salmonella enterica isolated from clinically diarrhoeic humans in Egypt. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2014; 33:1323-37. [DOI: 10.1007/s10096-014-2072-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2013] [Accepted: 01/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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