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Ai G, Si J, Cheng Y, Meng R, Wu Z, Xu R, Wang X, Zhai Y, Peng H, Li Y, Dou D, Jing M. The oomycete-specific BAG subfamily maintains protein homeostasis and promotes pathogenicity in an atypical HSP70-independent manner. Cell Rep 2023; 42:113391. [PMID: 37930886 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.113391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Revised: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein homeostasis is vital for organisms and requires chaperones like the conserved Bcl-2-associated athanogene (BAG) co-chaperones that bind to the heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) through their C-terminal BAG domain (BD). Here, we show an unconventional BAG subfamily exclusively found in oomycetes. Oomycete BAGs feature an atypical N-terminal BD with a short and oomycete-specific α1 helix (α1'), plus a C-terminal small heat shock protein (sHSP) domain. In oomycete pathogen Phytophthora sojae, both BD-α1' and sHSP domains are required for P. sojae BAG (PsBAG) function in cyst germination, pathogenicity, and unfolded protein response assisting in 26S proteasome-mediated degradation of misfolded proteins. PsBAGs form homo- and heterodimers through their unique BD-α1' to function properly, with no recruitment of HSP70s to form the common BAG-HSP70 complex found in other eukaryotes. Our study highlights an oomycete-exclusive protein homeostasis mechanism mediated by atypical BAGs, which provides a potential target for oomycete disease control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gan Ai
- Department of Plant Pathology, Key Laboratory of Soybean Disease and Pest Control (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs), Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Jierui Si
- Department of Plant Pathology, Key Laboratory of Soybean Disease and Pest Control (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs), Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Yang Cheng
- Department of Plant Pathology, Key Laboratory of Soybean Disease and Pest Control (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs), Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Rui Meng
- Department of Plant Pathology, Key Laboratory of Soybean Disease and Pest Control (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs), Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Zishan Wu
- Department of Plant Pathology, Key Laboratory of Soybean Disease and Pest Control (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs), Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Ruofei Xu
- Department of Plant Pathology, Key Laboratory of Soybean Disease and Pest Control (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs), Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Xiaodan Wang
- Department of Plant Pathology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100091, China
| | - Ying Zhai
- USDA-ARS, Crop Diseases, Pests and Genetics Research Unit, Parlier, CA 93648, USA
| | - Hao Peng
- USDA-ARS, Crop Diseases, Pests and Genetics Research Unit, Parlier, CA 93648, USA
| | - Yurong Li
- Corteva Agriscience, Johnston, IA 50131, USA
| | - Daolong Dou
- Department of Plant Pathology, Key Laboratory of Soybean Disease and Pest Control (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs), Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Maofeng Jing
- Department of Plant Pathology, Key Laboratory of Soybean Disease and Pest Control (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs), Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China.
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Han X, Shen D, Xiong Q, Bao B, Zhang W, Dai T, Zhao Y, Borriss R, Fan B. The Plant-Beneficial Rhizobacterium Bacillus velezensis FZB42 Controls the Soybean Pathogen Phytophthora sojae Due to Bacilysin Production. Appl Environ Microbiol 2021; 87:e0160121. [PMID: 34550751 PMCID: PMC8580012 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01601-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Soybean root rot caused by the oomycete Phytophthora sojae is a serious soilborne disease threatening soybean production in China. Bacillus velezensis FZB42 is a model strain for Gram-positive plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria and is able to produce multiple antibiotics. In this study, we demonstrated that B. velezensis FZB42 can efficiently antagonize P. sojae. The underlying mechanism for the inhibition was then investigated. The FZB42 mutants deficient in the synthesis of lipopeptides (bacillomycin D and fengycin), known to have antifungal activities, and polyketides (bacillaene, difficidin, and macrolactin), known to have antibacterial activities, were not impaired in their antagonism toward P. sojae; in contrast, mutants deficient in bacilysin biosynthesis completely lost their antagonistic activities toward P. sojae, indicating that bacilysin was responsible for the activity. Isolated pure bacilysin confirmed this inference. Bacilysin was previously shown to be antagonistic mainly toward prokaryotic bacteria rather than eukaryotes. Here, we found that bacilysin could severely damage the hyphal structures of P. sojae and lead to the loss of its intracellular contents. A device was invented allowing interactions between P. sojae and B. velezensis FZB42 on nutrient agar. In this manner, the effect of FZB42 on P. sojae was studied by transcriptomics. FZB42 significantly inhibited the expression of P. sojae genes related to growth, macromolecule biosynthesis, pathogenicity, and ribosomes. Among them, the genes for pectate lyase were the most significantly downregulated. Additionally, we showed that bacilysin effectively prevents soybean sprouts from being infected by P. sojae and could antagonize diverse Phytophthora species, such as Phytophthora palmivora, P. melonis, P. capsici, P. litchi, and, most importantly, P. infestans. IMPORTANCEPhytophthora spp. are widespread eukaryotic phytopathogens and often extremely harmful. Phytophthora can infect many types of plants important to agriculture and forestry and thus cause large economic losses. Perhaps due to inappropriate recognition of Phytophthora as a common pathogen in history, research on the biological control of Phytophthora is limited. This study shows that B. velezensis FZB42 can antagonize various Phytophthora species and prevent the infection of soybean seedlings by P. sojae. The antibiotic produced by FZB42, bacilysin, which was already known to have antibacterial effectiveness, is responsible for the inhibitory action against Phytophthora. We further showed that some Phytophthora genes and pathways may be targeted in future biocontrol studies. Therefore, our data provide a basis for the development of new tools for the prevention and control of root and stem rot in soybean and other plant diseases caused by Phytophthora.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingshan Han
- Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, College of Forestry, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Dongxia Shen
- Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, College of Forestry, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Qin Xiong
- Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, College of Biology and the Environment, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Beihua Bao
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Wenbo Zhang
- Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, College of Forestry, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Tingting Dai
- Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, College of Forestry, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yinjuan Zhao
- Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, College of Forestry, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Rainer Borriss
- Institut für Biologie, Humboldt Universität Berlin, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Ben Fan
- Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, College of Forestry, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
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Tani S, Nishio N, Kai K, Hagiwara D, Ogata Y, Tojo M, Sumitani JI, Judelson HS, Kawaguchi T. Chemical genetic approach using β-rubromycin reveals that a RIO kinase-like protein is involved in morphological development in Phytophthora infestans. Sci Rep 2020; 10:22326. [PMID: 33339950 PMCID: PMC7749174 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-79326-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
To characterize the molecular mechanisms underlying life-stage transitions in Phytophthora infestans, we initiated a chemical genetics approach by screening for a stage-specific inhibitor of morphological development from microbial culture extracts prepared mostly from actinomycetes from soil in Japan. Of the more than 700 extracts, one consistently inhibited Ph. infestans cyst germination. Purification and identification of the active compound by ESI–MS, 1H-NMR, and 13C-NMR identified β-rubromycin as the inhibitor of cyst germination (IC50 = 19.8 μg/L); β-rubromycin did not inhibit growth on rye media, sporangium formation, zoospore release, cyst formation, or appressorium formation in Ph. infestans. Further analyses revealed that β-rubromycin inhibited the germination of cysts and oospores in Pythium aphanidermatum. A chemical genetic approach revealed that β-rubromycin stimulated the expression of RIO kinase-like gene (PITG_04584) by 60-fold in Ph. infestans. Genetic analyses revealed that PITG_04584, which lacks close non-oomycete relatives, was involved in zoosporogenesis, cyst germination, and appressorium formation in Ph. infestans. These data imply that further functional analyses of PITG_04584 may contribute to new methods to suppress diseases caused by oomycetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuji Tani
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, Osaka, 599-8531, Japan.
| | - Naotaka Nishio
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, Osaka, 599-8531, Japan
| | - Kenji Kai
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, Osaka, 599-8531, Japan
| | - Daisuke Hagiwara
- Medical Mycology Research Center, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan.,Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Yoshiyuki Ogata
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, Osaka, 599-8531, Japan
| | - Motoaki Tojo
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, Osaka, 599-8531, Japan
| | - Jun-Ichi Sumitani
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, Osaka, 599-8531, Japan
| | - Howard S Judelson
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Takashi Kawaguchi
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, Osaka, 599-8531, Japan
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Wang T, Wang X, Zhu X, He Q, Guo L. A proper PiCAT2 level is critical for sporulation, sporangium function, and pathogenicity of Phytophthora infestans. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2020; 21:460-474. [PMID: 31997544 PMCID: PMC7060140 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.12907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Revised: 12/12/2019] [Accepted: 12/13/2019] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Catalase is present in prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms and is important for the protective effects of the antioxidant system against free radicals. Many studies have confirmed that catalase is required for the growth, development, and pathogenesis of bacteria, plants, animals, and fungi. However, there has been relatively little research on the catalases in oomycetes, which form an important group of fungus-like eukaryotes that produce zoosporangia. In this study, we detected two Phytophthora infestans genes encoding catalases, but only PiCAT2 exhibited catalase activity in the sporulation stage and was highly produced during asexual reproduction and in the late infection stage. Compared with the wild-type strain, the PiCAT2-silenced P. infestans transformants were more sensitive to abiotic stress, were less pathogenic, and had a lower colony expansion rate and lower PiMPK7, PiVPS1, and PiGPG1 expression levels. In contrast, the PiCAT2-overexpressed transformants were slightly less sensitive to abiotic stress. Interestingly, increasing and decreasing PiCAT2 expression from the normal level inhibited sporulation, germination, and infectivity, and down-regulated PiCdc14 expression, but up-regulated PiSDA1 expression. These results suggest that PiCAT2 is required for P. infestans mycelial growth, asexual reproduction, abiotic stress tolerance, and pathogenicity. However, a proper PiCAT2 level is critical for the formation and normal function of sporangia. Furthermore, PiCAT2 affects P. infestans sporangial formation and function, pathogenicity, and abiotic stress tolerance by regulating the expression of cell cycle-related genes (PiCdc14 and PiSDA1) and MAPK pathway genes. Our findings provide new insights into catalase functions in eukaryotic pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tu‐Hong Wang
- College of Plant Protection and Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green ManagementMOAChina Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Xiao‐Wen Wang
- College of Plant Protection and Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green ManagementMOAChina Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Xiao‐Qiong Zhu
- College of Plant Protection and Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green ManagementMOAChina Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Qun He
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology and MOA Key Laboratory of Soil MicrobiologyCollege of Biological SciencesChina Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Li‐Yun Guo
- College of Plant Protection and Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green ManagementMOAChina Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
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Hardham AR, Blackman LM. Phytophthora cinnamomi. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2018; 19:260-285. [PMID: 28519717 PMCID: PMC6637996 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.12568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2017] [Revised: 04/20/2017] [Accepted: 05/11/2017] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Phytophthora cinnamomi is one of the most devastating plant pathogens in the world. It infects close to 5000 species of plants, including many of importance in agriculture, forestry and horticulture. The inadvertent introduction of P. cinnamomi into natural ecosystems, including a number of recognized Global Biodiversity Hotspots, has had disastrous consequences for the environment and the biodiversity of flora and fauna. The genus Phytophthora belongs to the Class Oomycetes, a group of fungus-like organisms that initiate plant disease through the production of motile zoospores. Disease control is difficult in agricultural and forestry situations and even more challenging in natural ecosystems as a result of the scale of the problem and the limited range of effective chemical inhibitors. The development of sustainable control measures for the future management of P. cinnamomi requires a comprehensive understanding of the cellular and molecular basis of pathogen development and pathogenicity. The application of next-generation sequencing technologies to generate genomic and transcriptomic data promises to underpin a new era in P. cinnamomi research and discovery. The aim of this review is to integrate bioinformatic analyses of P. cinnamomi sequence data with current knowledge of the cellular and molecular basis of P. cinnamomi growth, development and plant infection. The goal is to provide a framework for future research by highlighting potential pathogenicity genes, shedding light on their possible functions and identifying suitable targets for future control measures. TAXONOMY Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands; Kingdom Chromista; Phylum Oomycota or Pseudofungi; Class Oomycetes; Order Peronosporales; Family Peronosporaceae; genus Phytophthora. HOST RANGE Infects about 5000 species of plants, including 4000 Australian native species. Host plants important for agriculture and forestry include avocado, chestnut, macadamia, oak, peach and pineapple. DISEASE SYMPTOMS A root pathogen which causes rotting of fine and fibrous roots, but which can also cause stem cankers. Root damage may inhibit water movement from roots to shoots, leading to dieback of young shoots. USEFUL WEBSITES: http://fungidb.org/fungidb/; http://genome.jgi.doe.gov/Phyci1/Phyci1.home.html; http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/assembly/GCA_001314365.1; http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/assembly/GCA_001314505.1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrienne R. Hardham
- Plant Science Division, Research School of Biology, College of Medicine, Biology and EnvironmentThe Australian National UniversityCanberraACT 2601Australia
| | - Leila M. Blackman
- Plant Science Division, Research School of Biology, College of Medicine, Biology and EnvironmentThe Australian National UniversityCanberraACT 2601Australia
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Liu P, Gong J, Ding X, Jiang Y, Chen G, Li B, Weng Q, Chen Q. The L-type Ca(2+) Channel Blocker Nifedipine Inhibits Mycelial Growth, Sporulation, and Virulence of Phytophthora capsici. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:1236. [PMID: 27540377 PMCID: PMC4972815 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.01236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2016] [Accepted: 07/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The oomycete vegetable pathogen Phytophthora capsici causes significant losses of important vegetable crops worldwide. Calcium and other plant nutrients have been used in disease management of oomycete pathogens. Calcium homeostasis and signaling is essential for numerous biological processes, and Ca(2+) channel blockers prevent excessive Ca(2+) influx into the fungal cell. However, it is not known whether voltage-gated Ca(2+) channel blockers improve control over oomycete pathogens. In the present study, we compared the inhibitory effects of CaCl2 and the extracellular Ca(2+) chelator EDTA on mycelial growth and found that calcium assimilation plays a key role in P. capsici mycelial growth. Next, we involved the voltage-gated Ca(2+) channel blockers verapamil (VP) and nifedipine (NFD) to analyze the effect of Ca(2+) channel blockers on mycelial growth and sporulation; the results suggested that NFD, but not VP, caused significant inhibition. Ion rescue in an NFD-induced inhibition assay suggested that NFD-induced inhibition is calcium-dependent. In addition, NFD increased P. capsici sensitivity to H2O2 in a calcium-dependent manner, and extracellular calcium rescued it. Furthermore, NFD inhibited the virulence and gene expression related to its pathogenicity. These results suggest that NFD inhibits mycelial growth, sporulation, and virulence of P. capsici.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Qiyong Weng
- Fujian Key Laboratory for Monitoring and Integrated Management of Crop Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Fujian Academy of Agricultural SciencesFuzhou, China
| | - Qinghe Chen
- Fujian Key Laboratory for Monitoring and Integrated Management of Crop Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Fujian Academy of Agricultural SciencesFuzhou, China
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Acetylome analysis reveals the involvement of lysine acetylation in diverse biological processes in Phytophthora sojae. Sci Rep 2016; 6:29897. [PMID: 27412925 PMCID: PMC4944153 DOI: 10.1038/srep29897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2016] [Accepted: 06/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Lysine acetylation is a dynamic and highly conserved post-translational modification that plays an important regulatory role in almost every aspects of cell metabolism in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Phytophthora sojae is one of the most important plant pathogens due to its huge economic impact. However, to date, little is known about the functions of lysine acetylation in this Phytopthora. Here, we conducted a lysine acetylome in P. sojae. Overall, 2197 lysine acetylation sites in 1150 proteins were identified. The modified proteins are involved in diverse biological processes and are localized to multiple cellular compartments. Importantly, 7 proteins involved in the pathogenicity or the secretion pathway of P. sojae were found to be acetylated. These data provide the first comprehensive view of the acetylome of P. sojae and serve as an important resource for functional analysis of lysine acetylation in plant pathogens.
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Sheng Y, Wang Y, Meijer HJG, Yang X, Hua C, Ye W, Tao K, Liu X, Govers F, Wang Y. The heat shock transcription factor PsHSF1 of Phytophthora sojae is required for oxidative stress tolerance and detoxifying the plant oxidative burst. Environ Microbiol 2015; 17:1351-64. [PMID: 25156425 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.12609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2014] [Accepted: 08/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
In the interaction between plant and microbial pathogens, reactive oxygen species (ROS) rapidly accumulate upon pathogen recognition at the infection site and play a central role in plant defence. However, the mechanisms that plant pathogens use to counteract ROS are still poorly understood especially in oomycetes, filamentous organisms that evolved independently from fungi. ROS detoxification depends on transcription factors (TFs) that are highly conserved in fungi but much less conserved in oomycetes. In this study, we identified the TF PsHSF1 that acts as a modulator of the oxidative stress response in the soybean stem and root rot pathogen Phytophthora sojae. We found that PsHSF1 is critical for pathogenicity in P. sojae by detoxifying the plant oxidative burst. ROS produced in plant defence can be detoxified by extracellular peroxidases and laccases which might be regulated by PsHSF1. Our study extends the understanding of ROS detoxification mechanism mediated by a heat shock TF in oomycetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuting Sheng
- Department of Plant Pathology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
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Zhang W, Blackman LM, Hardham AR. Transient fusion and selective secretion of vesicle proteins in Phytophthora nicotianae zoospores. PeerJ 2013; 1:e221. [PMID: 24392285 PMCID: PMC3869178 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2013] [Accepted: 11/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Secretion of pathogen proteins is crucial for the establishment of disease in animals and plants. Typically, early interactions between host and pathogen trigger regulated secretion of pathogenicity factors that function in pathogen adhesion and host penetration. During the onset of plant infection by spores of the Oomycete, Phytophthora nicotianae, proteins are secreted from three types of cortical vesicles. Following induction of spore encystment, two vesicle types undergo full fusion, releasing their entire contents onto the cell surface. However, the third vesicle type, so-called large peripheral vesicles, selectively secretes a small Sushi domain-containing protein, PnCcp, while retaining a large glycoprotein, PnLpv, before moving away from the plasma membrane. Selective secretion of PnCcp is associated with its compartmentalization within the vesicle periphery. Pharmacological inhibition of dynamin function, purportedly in vesicle fission, by dynasore treatment provides evidence that selective secretion of PnCcp requires transient fusion of the large peripheral vesicles. This is the first report of selective protein secretion via transient fusion outside mammalian cells. Selective secretion is likely to be an important aspect of plant infection by this destructive pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiwei Zhang
- Plant Science Division, Research School of Biology, College of Medicine, Biology and Environment, The Australian National University , Canberra, ACT , Australia
| | - Leila M Blackman
- Plant Science Division, Research School of Biology, College of Medicine, Biology and Environment, The Australian National University , Canberra, ACT , Australia
| | - Adrienne R Hardham
- Plant Science Division, Research School of Biology, College of Medicine, Biology and Environment, The Australian National University , Canberra, ACT , Australia
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