Spatial IMA1 regulation restricts root iron acquisition on MAMP perception

Iron is critical during host-microorganism interactions1-4. Restriction of available iron by the host during infection is an important defence strategy, described as nutritional immunity5. However, this poses a conundrum for externally facing, absorptive tissues such as the gut epithelium or the plant root epidermis that generate environments that favour iron bioavailability. For example, plant roots acquire iron mostly from the soil and, when iron deficient, increase iron availability through mechanisms that include rhizosphere acidification and secretion of iron chelators6-9. Yet, the elevated iron bioavailability would also be beneficial for the growth of bacteria that threaten plant health. Here we report that microorganism-associated molecular patterns such as flagellin lead to suppression of root iron acquisition through a localized degradation of the systemic iron-deficiency signalling peptide Iron Man 1 (IMA1) in Arabidopsis thaliana. This response is also elicited when bacteria enter root tissues, but not when they dwell on the outer root surface. IMA1 itself has a role in modulating immunity in root and shoot, affecting the levels of root colonization and the resistance to a bacterial foliar pathogen. Our findings reveal an adaptive molecular mechanism of nutritional immunity that affects iron bioavailability and uptake, as well as immune responses.

Mechanistic understanding of interspecific interaction between a C4 grass and a C3 legume via arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, as influenced by soil phosphorus availability using a 13 C and 15 N dual-labelled organic patch

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) can improve plant nutrient acquisition, either by directly supplying nutrients to plants or by promoting soil organic matter mineralization, thereby affecting interspecific plant relationships in natural communities. We examined the mechanism by which the addition of P affects interspecific interactions between a C4 grass (Bothriochloa ischaemum, a dominant species in natural grasslands) and a C3 legume (Lespedeza davurica, a subordinate species in natural grasslands) via AMF and plant growth, by continuous ¹³ C and ¹⁵ N labelling, combined with soil enzyme analyses. The results of ¹⁵ N labelling revealed that P addition affected the shoot uptake of N via AMF by B. ischaemum and L. davurica differently. Specifically, the addition of P significantly increased the shoot uptake of N via AMF by B. ischaemum but significantly decreased that by L. davurica. Interspecific plant interactions via AMF significantly facilitated the plant N uptake via AMF by B. ischaemum but significantly inhibited that by L. davurica under P-limited soil conditions, whereas the opposite effect was observed in the case of excess P. This was consistent with the impact of interspecific plant interaction via AMF on arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) benefit for plant growth. Our data indicate that the capability of plant N uptake via AMF is an important mechanism that influences interspecific relationships between C4 grasses and C3 legumes. Moreover, the effect of AMF on the activities of the soil enzymes responsible for N and P mineralization substantially contributed to the consequence of interspecific plant interaction via AMF for plant growth.

Light-induced mobile factors from shoots regulate rhizobium-triggered soybean root nodulation

Symbiotic nitrogen fixation is an energy-expensive process, and the light available to plants has been proposed to be a primary influencer. We demonstrate that the light-induced soybean TGACG-motif binding factor 3/4 (GmSTF3/4) and FLOWERING LOCUS T (GmFTs), which move from shoots to roots, interdependently induce nodule organogenesis. Rhizobium-activated calcium- and calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CCaMK) phosphorylates GmSTF3, triggering GmSTF3–GmFT2a complex formation, which directly activates expression of nodule inception (NIN) and nuclear factor Y (NF-YA1 and NF-YB1). Accordingly, the CCaMK–STF–FT module integrates aboveground light signals with underground symbiotic signaling, ensuring that the host plant informs its roots that the aboveground environment is prepared to sustainably supply the carbohydrate necessary for symbiosis. These results suggest approaches that could enhance the balance of carbon and nitrogen in the biosphere.

Systemic reprogramming of phytohormone profiles and metabolic traits by virulent Diplodia infection in its pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) host

The widespread ascomycetous fungus Diplodia pinea is a latent, necrotrophic pathogen in Pinus species causing severe damages and world-wide economic losses. However, the interactions between pine hosts and virulent D. pinea are largely not understood. In the present study, systemic defence responses were investigated in non-inoculated, asymptomatic needles and roots of D. pinea infected saplings of two P. sylvestris provenances under controlled greenhouse conditions. Here, we show that D. pinea infection induced a multitude of systemic responses of the phytohormone profiles and metabolic traits. Shared systemic responses of both pine provenances in needles and roots included increased abscisic acid and jasmonic acid levels. Exclusively in the roots of both provenances, enhanced salicylic acid and reduced indole-3-acetic acid levels, structural biomass, and elevated activities of anti-oxidative enzymes were observed. Despite these similarities, the two pine provenances investigated different significantly in the systemic responses of both, phytohormone profiles and metabolic traits in needles and roots. However, the different systemic responses did not prevent subsequent destruction of non-inoculated needles, but rather prevented damage to the roots. Our results provide a detailed view on systemic defence mechanisms of pine hosts that are of particular significance for the selection of provenances with improved defence capacity.

A microbiota-root-shoot circuit favours Arabidopsis growth over defence under suboptimal light

Bidirectional root-shoot signalling is probably key in orchestrating stress responses and ensuring plant survival. Here, we show that Arabidopsis thaliana responses to microbial root commensals and light are interconnected along a microbiota-root-shoot axis. Microbiota and light manipulation experiments in a gnotobiotic plant system reveal that low photosynthetically active radiation perceived by leaves induces long-distance modulation of root bacterial communities but not fungal or oomycete communities. Reciprocally, microbial commensals alleviate plant growth deficiency under low photosynthetically active radiation. This growth rescue was associated with reduced microbiota-induced aboveground defence responses and altered resistance to foliar pathogens compared with the control light condition. Inspection of a set of A. thaliana mutants reveals that this microbiota- and light-dependent growth-defence trade-off is directly explained by belowground bacterial community composition and requires the host transcriptional regulator MYC2. Our work indicates that aboveground stress responses in plants can be modulated by signals from microbial root commensals.

Temporal assessment of root and shoot colonization of elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum Schum.) host seedlings by Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus strain LP343

Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus is a species of great agronomic potential due to its growth-promotion traits. Its colonization process in different plants has been reported. However, there have been no studies regarding its structural colonization in elephant grass. This is a fast-growing C4-Poaceae plant, and its application in Brazil is mainly aimed at feeding dairy cattle, due to its high nutritional value. Also, in the last decade, this grass has been applied in the production of biofuels. The present study aimed to monitor the colonization process of strain LP343 of G. diazotrophicus inoculated in elephant grass seedlings of PCEA genotype, by using a mCherry-tagged bacterium. Samples of roots and shoots collected at different periods were visualized by confocal laser-scanning microscopy. The colony-counting assay was used to compare the number of cells recovered in different niches and a qPCR was performed for the quantification of endophytic cells in root and shoot tissues. Results suggested that the strain LP343 quickly recognized the PCEA roots as host, attached to the elephant grass roots at 6 h, and 7 days after inoculation were able to colonize the xylem vessels of roots and shoots of elephant grass. This study advances our knowledge about the colonization process of G. diazotrophicus species in elephant grass, contributing to future studies involving the plant-bacteria interaction cultivated under gnotobiotic conditions.

Inhibition of multiple defense responsive pathways by CaWRKY70 transcription factor promotes susceptibility in chickpea under Fusarium oxysporum stress condition

BACKGROUND

Suppression and activation of plant defense genes is comprehensively regulated by WRKY family transcription factors. Chickpea, the non-model crop legume suffers from wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri Race1 (Foc1), defense response mechanisms of which are poorly understood. Here, we attempted to show interaction between WRKY70 and several downstream signaling components involved in susceptibility/resistance response in chickpea upon challenge with Foc1.

RESULTS

In the present study, we found Cicer arietinum L. WRKY70 (CaWRKY70) negatively governs multiple defense responsive pathways, including Systemic Acquired Resistance (SAR) activation in chickpea upon Foc1 infection. CaWRKY70 is found to be significantly accumulated at shoot tissues of susceptible (JG62) chickpea under Foc1 stress and salicylic acid (SA) application. CaWRKY70 overexpression promotes susceptibility in resistant chickpea (WR315) plants to Foc1 infection. Transgenic plants upon Foc1 inoculation demonstrated suppression of not only endogenous SA concentrations but expression of genes involved in SA signaling. CaWRKY70 overexpressing chickpea roots exhibited higher ion-leakage and Foc1 biomass accumulation compared to control transgenic (VC) plants. CaWRKY70 overexpression suppresses H₂O₂ production and resultant reactive oxygen species (ROS) induced cell death in Foc1 infected chickpea roots, stem and leaves. Being the nuclear targeted protein, CaWRKY70 suppresses CaMPK9-CaWRKY40 signaling in chickpea through its direct and indirect negative regulatory activities. Protein-protein interaction study revealed CaWRKY70 and CaRPP2-like CC-NB-ARC-LRR protein suppresses hyper-immune signaling in chickpea. Together, our study provides novel insights into mechanisms of suppression of the multiple defense signaling components in chickpea by CaWRKY70 under Foc1 stress.

CONCLUSION

CaWRKY70 mediated defense suppression unveils networking between several immune signaling events negatively affecting downstream resistance mechanisms in chickpea under Foc1 stress.

Assessing the Efficacy of Broad-Spectrum Antibiotics in Controlling Bacterial Contamination in the In Vitro Micropropagation of Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc)

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc) (Zingiberaceae) is a livelihood and commercial crop in Ethiopia. But, the availability of clean and healthy planting materials has become a problem due to wilt disease, caused by Ralstonia solanacearum Biovar 3 Race 4. This problem obliged growers to seek for tens of millions of vigorous and disease-free planting materials very quickly via in vitro micropropagation of shoot tip explants. For this purpose, protocols of sterilizing shoot tip explants and controlling bacterial contamination of one Ethiopian ginger cultivar called Deribo were tested. Hence, this article reports the finding of a study that aimed at testing the (a) effectiveness of three sterilization agents, namely, 0.25% w/v RBK (composed of ridomile, bayleton, and kocide at 1 : 1 : 1 ratio), 0.50% v/v NaOCl, and 70% v/v ethanol at three different treatment times in combination with 0.25% HgCl2; (b) efficacy of four broad-spectrum antibiotics and their combinations in controlling bacterial contaminants of ginger shoot tip explants and in vitro micropropagation media; and (c) effects of the antibiotics on the shooting performances of the explants of the cultivar. A 0.50% v/v NaOCl at exposure time of 20 min followed by 0.25% HgCl2 has resulted in 80% contamination-free and 70% live explants after three weeks of incubation. Likewise, cefotaxime at 50, 100, and 200 mg/L and cefotaxime plus streptomycin at 25, 50, and 100 mg/L yielded 87 to 93% contamination-free microshoots after three weeks of culturing. The number of explants killed by the antibiotics increased with increasing the concentration of the antibiotics. Cefotaxime at 50 mg/L and cefotaxime plus streptomycin at 25 mg/L yielded significantly highest mean microshoots per explant (7.10 ± 0.36 and 7.51 ± 0.27, respectively) and mean shoot length (4.2 ± 0.26 and 3.56 ± 0.17 cm, respectively). Some of the microshoots showed some yellowing. But, they turned green and grew normal after subcultured into fresh, antibiotics-free culture media. These findings are important foundations towards developing more optimized protocols of sterilizing explants and controlling bacterial contaminants for large-scale in vitro micropropagation of the Deribo ginger cultivar.

Selection of Bacillus thuringiensis strains in citrus and their pathogenicity to Diaphorina citri (Hemiptera: Liviidae) nymphs

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins are effective in controlling insect pests either through the spraying of products or when expressed in transgenic crops. The discovery of endophytic Bt strains opened new perspectives for studies aimed at the control of sap-sucking insects, such as the Asian citrus psyllid Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Liviidae), a vector of "Candidatus Liberibacter spp.," associated with citrus huanglongbing (HLB). In this study, translocation of endophytic Bt strains in citrus seedlings inoculated with Bt suspension delivered by soil-drench, and their systemic pathogenicity to D. citri nymphs were investigated. The pathogenicity of three wild-type Bt strains against D. citri third-instar nymphs was demonstrated. Among the 10 recombinant strains tested (each of them harboring a single cry or cyt gene), 3 can be highlighted, causing 42%-77% and 66%-90% nymphal mortality at 2 and 5 d after inoculation, respectively. The isolation of Bt cells from young citrus shoots and dead nymphs, and PCR performed with specific primers, confirmed the involvement of the Bt strains in the psyllid mortality. This is the first report showing the translocation of Bt strains from citrus seedling roots to shoots and their potential to control D. citri nymphs that fed on these soil-drench inoculated seedlings. The Bt strains that caused the highest mortality rates have the potential to be used as bioinsecticides to control D. citri and the identified genes can be used for the production of transgenic Bt citrus.

Dynamics of Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus Movement and Sieve-Pore Plugging in Citrus Sink Cells

Citrus greening or Huanglongbing (HLB) is caused by the phloem-limited intracellular Gram-negative bacterium Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus (CLas). HLB-infected citrus phloem cells undergo structural modifications that include cell wall thickening, callose and phloem protein induction, and cellular plugging. However, very little is known about the intracellular mechanisms that take place during CLas cell-to-cell movement. Here, we show that CLas movement through phloem pores of sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) and grapefruit (Citrus paradisi) is carried out by the elongated form of the bacteria. The round form of CLas is too large to move, but can change its morphology to enable its movement. CLas cells adhere to the plasma membrane of the phloem cells specifically adjacent to the sieve pores. Remarkably, CLas was present in both mature sieve element cells and nucleated nonsieve element cells. The sieve plate plugging structures of host plants were shown to have different composition in different citrus tissues. Callose deposition was the main plugging mechanism in the HLB-infected flush, where it reduced the open space of the pores. In the roots, pores were surrounded by dark extracellular material, with very little accumulation of callose. The expression of CALLOSE SYNTHASE7 and PHLOEM PROTEIN2 genes was upregulated in the shoots, but downregulated in root tissues. In seed coats, no phloem occlusion was observed, and CLas accumulated to high levels. Our results provide insight into the cellular mechanisms of Gram-negative bacterial cell-to-cell movement in plant phloem.

The effects of ectomycorrhizal fungi on heavy metals' transport in Pinus massoniana and bacteria community in rhizosphere soil in mine tailing area

Pinus massoniana is one of the potential tree species of afforestation in barren mine tailing area, and ectomycorrhizal fungi contributes remarkably to its survival. However, how ectomycorrhizal fungi interacts with Pinus massoniana under heavy metals' stress is unknown. Two systems (Pinus massoniana inoculated with and without ectomycorrhizal fungi) were designed, and each system contained rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere, while bulk soil was sampled as control. The results showed that treatment of ectomycorrhizal fungi inoculation could obviously improved the absorption of soil moisture, total carbon/total nitrogen and nutrients, while reduced the bulk density and heavy metals of soil when compared with control (p＜0.05). The heavy metals accumulating in plants' roots with ectomycorrhizal fungi were greater than that without ectomycorrhizal fungi. Conversely, they were lower in shoots with ectomycorrhizal fungi. The bacterial community were affiliated with 23 bacterial phyla, 70 classes, 115 orders, 201 families, and 363 genera. Constrained Principal Coordinate Analysis and redundancy analysis demonstrated that bacterial communities structure in the soil inoculated with or without ectomycorrhizal fungi and bulk soil were distinguishable, but no difference between rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere. The LEfSe analysis showed Acidobacteria, Actinobacteria, and Proteobacteria were the dominant phyla that contributed to the difference among treatments.

Isotope Labeling to Study Phosphorus Uptake in the Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis

Isotope labeling enables the detection and quantification of nutrient fluxes between soil and plants through arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. Here we describe the use of radioactive isotopes, ³³P and ³²P, to study the uptake of P from soil by AM fungal mycelium and its transfer to the host plant through the mycorrhizal pathway.

Effects of PGPR (Pseudomonas sp.) and Ag-nanoparticles on Enzymatic Activity and Physiology of Cucumber

BACKGROUND

The present investigation aimed to evaluate the role of Plant Growth- Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) and Ag-nanoparticles on two varieties (American variety, Poinsett 76 and Desi variety, Sialkot selection) of cucumber plants.

METHODS

Cucumber seeds prior to sowing, were inoculated with two strains of PGPR, Pseudomonas putida (KX574857) and Pseudomonas stutzeri (KX574858) at the rate of 106 cells/ml. Agnanoparticles (5ppm) were sprayed on the plant at early vegetative phase 27 d after sowing.

RESULTS

The proline, sugar, protein, phenolics, flavonoids, chlorophyll and carotenoids contents of leaves of plants and the activities of Phenylalanine Ammonia-Lyase (PAL), Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) and Catalase (CAT) were determined from leaves of plants at early vegetative phase. After 3 months of seeds sowing, Ag-nanoparticles enhanced the length of root but decreased the length of shoot and fresh weight of root and shoot as compared to control whereas, the leaf protein, proline, phenolics, flavonoids, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll, sugar and Phenylalanine Ammonia-Lyase (PAL) activity of plants were increased significantly over control. Ag-nanoparticles also suppressed the effect of PGPR for root, shoot length but augmented the protein and phenolics contents of leaves of both the varieties.

CONCLUSION

The combined treatment of Ag-nanoparticles and PGPR enhanced flavonoids content of leaves and the activities of PAL, SOD and CAT in leaves of plants over control. Agnanoparticles effectively increased the Phenylalanine Ammonia-Lyase (PAL), Catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities in leaves of both the varieties. Pseudomonas putida may be used either alone or in combination with Ag-nanoparticles to enhance the antioxidant and defense enzyme activities. Hence, the plant can tolerate the diseases and stresses in a much better way with higher protein and phenolics content.

Identification and Characterization of Neofabraea kienholzii and Phlyctema vagabunda Causing Leaf and Shoot Lesions of Olive in California

California produces over 95% of the olives grown in the United States. In 2017, California's total bearing acreage for olives was 14,570 hectares producing 192,000 tons of olives valued at $186.6 million. During the early spring of 2016, unusual leaf and shoot lesions were detected in olive trees from superhigh-density orchards in the Northern San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys of California. Affected trees displayed numerous leaf and shoot lesions developing at wounds created by mechanical harvesters. The 'Arbosana' cultivar was highly affected by the disease, whereas the disease was sporadic in 'Arbequina' and not found in 'Koroneiki' cultivar. Two fungal species, Neofabraea kienholzii and Phlyctema vagabunda, were found to be consistently associated with the disease, and Koch's postulates were completed. Species identity was confirmed by morphology and molecular data of the partial large subunit rDNA, the internal transcribed spacer region, and partial beta-tubulin region. The disease signs and symptoms are described and illustrated.

A Simple LC-MS Method for the Quantitation of Alkaloids in Endophyte-Infected Perennial Ryegrass

The rapid identification and quantitation of alkaloids produced by Epichloë endophyte-infected pasture grass is important for the agricultural industry. Beneficial alkaloids, such as peramine, provide the grass with enhanced insect protection. Conversely, ergovaline and lolitrem B can negatively impact livestock. Currently, a single validated method to measure these combined alkaloids in planta does not exist. Here, a simple two-step extraction method was developed for Epichloë-infected perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.). Peramine, ergovaline and lolitrem B were quantified using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Alkaloid linearity, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantitation (LOQ), accuracy, precision, selectivity, recovery, matrix effect and robustness were all established. The validated method was applied to eight different ryegrass-endophyte symbiota. Robustness was established by comparing quantitation results across two additional instruments; a triple quadruple mass spectrometer (QQQ MS) and by fluorescence detection (FLD). Quantitation results were similar across all three instruments, indicating good reproducibility. LOQ values ranged from 0.8 ng/mL to 6 ng/mL, approximately one hundred times lower than those established by previous work using FLD (for ergovaline and lolitrem B), and LC-MS (for peramine). This work provides the first highly sensitive quantitative LC-MS method for the accurate and reproducible quantitation of important endophyte-derived alkaloids.

Effect of tungsten-resistant bacteria on uptake of tungsten by lettuce and tungsten speciation in plants

Tungsten is an emerging contaminant because of its potential toxicity to humans. However, tungsten-plant-microbe interactions remains unknown. The objective of the study was to evaluate the effect of tungsten-resistant bacteria on tungsten species in plants and microbial community structure in soil. Although bacterial inoculation did not affect lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) growth or tungsten uptake via root, tungsten-resistant bacteria increased translocation of tungsten from root to shoot. Bacterial inoculation slightly oxidized tungsten in lettuce based on tungsten L3 x-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES). Tungsten in lettuce roots and shoots grown in tungsten(VI)-spiked soil existed as a mixture of tungsten(IV) and tungsten(VI). Tungsten accumulated as polytungstate in the root and monotungstate in the shoot. Inoculation with tungsten-resistant bacteria and plant growth increased microbial diversity in tungsten-contaminated soil. In tungsten-spiked soils without plants, metal-resistant or reducing bacteria were found while bacteria growing in rhizosphere were detected in soils supporting plant growth. These results indicate a role of the bacteria and plants in phytoremediation of tungsten-contaminated soil.

The effects of soil phosphorus content on plant microbiota are driven by the plant phosphate starvation response

Phosphate starvation response (PSR) in nonmycorrhizal plants comprises transcriptional reprogramming resulting in severe physiological changes to the roots and shoots and repression of plant immunity. Thus, plant-colonizing microorganisms-the plant microbiota-are exposed to direct influence by the soil's phosphorus (P) content itself as well as to the indirect effects of soil P on the microbial niches shaped by the plant. The individual contribution of these factors to plant microbiota assembly remains unknown. To disentangle these direct and indirect effects, we planted PSR-deficient Arabidopsis mutants in a long-term managed soil P gradient and compared the composition of their shoot and root microbiota to wild-type plants across different P concentrations. PSR-deficiency had a larger effect on the composition of both bacterial and fungal plant-associated microbiota than soil P concentrations in both roots and shoots. To dissect plant-microbe interactions under variable P conditions, we conducted a microbiota reconstitution experiment. Using a 185-member bacterial synthetic community (SynCom) across a wide P concentration gradient in an agar matrix, we demonstrated a shift in the effect of bacteria on the plant from a neutral or positive interaction to a negative one, as measured by rosette size. This phenotypic shift was accompanied by changes in microbiota composition: the genus Burkholderia was specifically enriched in plant tissue under P starvation. Through a community drop-out experiment, we demonstrated that in the absence of Burkholderia from the SynCom, plant shoots accumulated higher ortophosphate (Pi) levels than shoots colonized with the full SynCom but only under Pi starvation conditions. Therefore, Pi-stressed plants are susceptible to colonization by latent opportunistic competitors found within their microbiome, thus exacerbating the plant's Pi starvation.

Mycorrhizal response in crop versus wild plants

We proposed a theoretical framework predicting mutualistic outcomes for the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis based on host provenance (crop versus wild). To test the framework, we grew two isolates of Rhizoglomus irregulare (commercial versus an isolate locally isolated), with five crop plants and five wild plants endemic to the region that co-occur with the locally sourced fungus. While inoculation with either isolate had no effect on plant biomass, it decreased leaf P content, particularly for wild plants. All plants associating with the commercial fungus had lower leaf P. Overall, our data shows that wild plants may be more sensitive to differences in mutualistic quality among fungal isolates.

Symbiotic microbes of Saxifraga stellaris ssp. alpigena from the copper creek of Schwarzwand (Austrian Alps) enhance plant tolerance to copper

Saxifraga stellaris var. alpigena grows as one of the very few higher plants in the copper rich area of the "blue creek" in Austria. Two endophytes were isolated from it: Mortierella sp. (fungus), and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia (bacterium). Both microbes were practically inseparable due to resistance of the bacteria to the antibiotics tested. On PDA media, the fungus showed higher tolerance to copper than the bacterium, which disappeared from both the media and the surface of the fungus in the presence of 150 μM of Cu. However, at this Cu concentration, the bacteria were still detectable inside the mycelium and reappeared on the outside when transferred to media of lower Cu concentration. Microscopic studies of in vitro cultivated plants showed that the fungus was present in both, the roots and shoots of the plant. The effects of endophytes on plant performance were assessed in rhizoboxes filled with Cu-rich substratum; plants inoculated with both microbes showed better growth, survival and photosynthesis performance than the non-inoculated controls. The results of this study prove the beneficial influence of the isolated endophytes on the Cu tolerance of S. stellaris, and indicate the ecological potential of applying microbial consortia to plants under extreme environmental conditions.

Molecular dialogue between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and the nonhost plant Arabidopsis thaliana switches from initial detection to antagonism

Approximately 29% of all vascular plant species are unable to establish an arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis. Despite this, AM fungi (Rhizophagus spp.) are enriched in the root microbiome of the nonhost Arabidopsis thaliana, and Arabidopsis roots become colonized when AM networks nurtured by host plants are available. Here, we investigated the nonhost-AM fungus interaction by analyzing transcriptional changes in Rhizophagus, Arabidopsis and the host plant Medicago truncatula while growing in the same mycorrhizal network. In early interaction stages, Rhizophagus activated the Arabidopsis strigolactone biosynthesis genes CCD7 and CCD8, suggesting that detection of AM fungi is not completely impaired. However, in colonized Arabidopsis roots, fungal nutrient transporter genes GintPT, GintAMT2, GintMST2 and GintMST4, essential for AM symbiosis, were not activated. RNA-seq transcriptome analysis pointed to activation of costly defenses in colonized Arabidopsis roots. Moreover, Rhizophagus colonization caused a 50% reduction in shoot biomass, but also led to enhanced systemic immunity against Botrytis cinerea. This suggests that early signaling between AM fungi and Arabidopsis is not completely impaired and that incompatibility appears at later interaction stages. Moreover, Rhizophagus-mediated defenses coincide with reduced Arabidopsis growth, but also with systemic disease resistance, highlighting the multifunctional role of AM fungi in host and nonhost interactions.

Bacterial and Fungal Endophytic Microbiomes of Salicornia europaea

We examined Salicornia europaea, a nonmycorrhizal halophyte associated with specific and unique endophytic bacteria and fungi. The microbial community structure was analyzed at two sites differing in salinization history (anthropogenic and naturally saline site), in contrasting seasons (spring and fall) and in two plant organs (shoots and roots) via 16S rRNA and internal transcribed spacer amplicon sequencing. We observed distinct communities at the two sites, and in shoots and roots, while the season was of no importance. The bacterial community was less diverse in shoot libraries than in roots, regardless of the site and season, whereas no significant differences were observed for the fungal community. Proteobacteria and Bacteroidetes dominated bacterial assemblages, and Ascomycetes were the most frequent fungi. A root core microbiome operational taxonomic unit belonging to the genus Marinimicrobium was identified. We detected a significant influence of the Salicornia bacterial community on the fungal one by means of cocorrespondence analysis. In addition, pathways and potential functions of the bacterial community in Salicornia europaea were inferred and discussed. We can conclude that bacterial and fungal microbiomes of S. europaea are determined by the origin of salinity at the sites. Bacterial communities seemed to influence fungal ones, but not the other way around, which takes us closer to understanding of interactions between the two microbial groups. In addition, the plant organs of the halophyte filter the microbial community composition.IMPORTANCE Endophytes are particularly fascinating because of their multifaceted lifestyle, i.e., they may exist as either free-living soil microbes or saprobic ones or pathogens. Endophytic communities of halophytes may be different than those in other plants because salinity acts as an environmental filter. At the same time, they may contribute to the host's adaptation to adverse environmental conditions, which may be of importance in agriculture.

Diverse cellular colonizing endophytic bacteria in field shoots and in vitro cultured papaya with physiological and functional implications

The study was envisaged to assess the extent of normally uncultivable endophytic bacteria in field papaya plants and in vitro established cultures adopting cultivation vs molecular analysis and microscopy. Surface-sterilized axillary shoot-buds of papaya 'Arka Surya' revealed high bacterial diversity as per 16S rRNA metagene amplicon sequencing (6 phyla, 10 classes, 21 families) with an abundance of Pseudomonas (Gammaproteobacteria), which also formed a common contaminant for in vitro cultured field explants. Molecular analysis of seedling shoot-tip-derived healthy proliferating cultures of three genotypes ('Arka Surya', 'Arka Prabhath', 'Red Lady') with regular monthly subculturing also displayed high bacterial diversity (11-16 phyla, >25 classes, >50 families, >200 genera) about 12-18 months after initial establishment. 'Arka Surya' and 'Red Lady' cultures bore predominantly Actinobacteria (75-78%) while 'Arka Prabhath' showed largely Alphaproteobacteria corroborating the slowly activated Methylobacterium sp. Bright-field direct microscopy on tissue sections and tissue homogenate and epi-fluorescence microscopy employing bacterial DNA probe SYTO-9 revealed abundant intracellular bacteria embracing the next-generation sequencing elucidated high taxonomic diversity. Phylogenetic investigation of communities by reconstruction of unobserved states- PICRUSt- functional annotation suggested significant operational roles for the bacterial-biome. Metabolism, environmental information processing, and genetic information processing constituted major Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes KEGG attributes. Papaya stocks occasionally displayed bacterial growth on culture medium arising from the activation of originally uncultivable organisms to cultivation. The organisms included Bacillus (35%), Methylobacterium (15%), Pseudomonas (10%) and seven other genera (40%). This study reveals a hidden world of diverse and abundant conventionally uncultivable cellular-colonizing endophytic bacteria in field shoots and micropropagating papaya stocks with high genotypic similarity and silent participation in various plant processes/pathways.

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis Affects Plant Immunity to Viral Infection and Accumulation

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, as root symbionts of most terrestrial plants, improve plant growth and fitness. In addition to the improved plant nutritional status, the physiological changes that trigger metabolic changes in the root via AM fungi can also increase the host ability to overcome biotic and abiotic stresses. Plant viruses are one of the important limiting factors for the commercial cultivation of various crops. The effect of AM fungi on viral infection is variable, and considerable attention is focused on shoot virus infection. This review provides an overview of the potential of AM fungi as bioprotection agents against viral diseases and emphasizes the complex nature of plant-fungus-virus interactions. Several mechanisms, including modulated plant tolerance, manipulation of induced systemic resistance (ISR), and altered vector pressure are involved in such interactions. We propose that using "omics" tools will provide detailed insights into the complex mechanisms underlying mycorrhizal-mediated plant immunity.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi reduce arsenic uptake and improve plant growth in Lens culinaris

Arsenic (As) is a carcinogenic and hazardous substance that poses a serious risk to human health due to its transport into the food chain. The present research is focused on the As transport in different lentil genotypes and the role of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) in mitigation of As phyto-toxicity. Arsenic transport from soil to root, shoot and grains in different lentil genotypes was analyzed by flow injection hydride generation atomic absorption spectrophotometry. AMF were applied for the reduction of As uptake as well as the improvement of plant growth in lentil genotypes. Arsenic phyto-toxicity was dose-dependent as evidenced by relatively higher shoot length, fresh and dry weight of root and shoot in 5 and 15 mgkg-1 As-treated lentil plants than that in 100 mgkg-1 As-treated lentil. Arsenic accumulation occurred in roots and shoots of all BARI-released lentil genotypes. Arsenic accumulation in grains was found higher in BARI Mashur 1 than other lentil genotypes. AMF treatment significantly increased growth and biomass accumulation in lentil compared to that in non-AMF plants. Furthermore, AMF effectively reduced the As concentrations in roots and shoots of lentil plants grown at 8 and 45 mgkg-1 As-contaminated soils. This study revealed remarkable divergence in As accumulation among different BARI-released lentil genotypes; however, AMF could reduce As uptake and mitigate As-induced phyto-toxicity in lentil. Taken together, our results suggest a great potential of AMF in mitigating As transfer in root and shoot mass and reallocation to grains, which would expand lentil cultivation in As-affected areas throughout the world.

Bacterial communities of three plant species from Pb-Zn contaminated sites and plant-growth promotional benefits of endophytic Microbacterium sp. (strain BXGe71)

The endophytic bacterial community of two hyperaccumulators (Arabis alpine, Dysphania ambrosioides) and Veronica ciliate was investigated by Illumina sequencing technology. In addition, the culturable endophytic bacteria (EB) were isolated and their plant-growth promotion capabilities were studied. A dataset consisting of 221,075 filtered high-quality and classifiable unique 16S rDNA gene tags, and an average of 36,846 tags with a mean length of 464-bp for each sample was generated. In total, 10801 different operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were detected, belonging to 18 bacterial phyla, 41 classes, 91 orders, 135 families, and 215 genera. Pseudomonas was the most dominant genus in both shoots and roots of the two hyperaccumulators, making up 81.56% and 81.13%, 41.60% and 77.06% of the total number of OTUs, respectively. However, both Chao 1 and Shannon indices of EB of the two hyperaccumulators were significantly lower than those of V. ciliate (P <. 05), except the Shannon index of D. ambrosioides shoots. The endophytic bacterial community of roots and shoots of A. alpine showed greater similarity with that of D. ambrosioides roots (12 km away), and clustered to one group in dendrogram, in clear contrast to that of V. ciliate, which grew closer to A. alpine (60 m away). Combining results of soil and plant analyses, we suggest that the soil properties, especially heavy metal concentration, may influence the plants endophytic bacterial community composition. Pot experiments showed that the strain BXGe71 (Microbacterium sp.) from A. alpine significantly enhanced host plants' growth under multi-heavy metal (HM) stress (P < .05, t-test).

Ochrobactrum cytisi IPA7.2 promotes growth of potato microplants and is resistant to abiotic stress

Bacteria in natural associations with agricultural crops are promising for use in the improvement of clonal micropropagation of plants. We clarified the taxonomic position of Ochrobactrum cytisi strain IPA7.2 and investigated its tolerance for salinity, high temperature, and glyphosate pollution. We also tested the strain's potential to promote the growth of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) microplants. Using the IPA7.2 draft genome (no. NZ_MOEC00000000), we searched for housekeeping genes and also for the target genes encoding glyphosate tolerance and plant-growth-promoting ability. A multilocus sequence analysis of the gap, rpoB, dnaK, trpE, aroC, and recA housekeeping genes led us to identify isolate IPA7.2 as O. cytisi. The strain tolerated temperatures up to 50 °C and NaCl concentrations up to 3-4%, and it produced 8 µg ml-1 of indole-3-acetic acid. It also tolerated 6 mM glyphosate owing to the presence of type II 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase. Finally, it was able to colonize the roots and tissues of potato microplants, an ability preserved by several generations after subculturing. We identified the development phase of potato microplants that was optimal for inoculation with O. cytisi IPA7.2. Inoculation of in vitro-grown 15-day-old microplants increased the mitotic index of root meristem cells (by 50%), the length of shoots (by 34%), the number of leaves (by 7%), and the number of roots (by 16%). Under ex vitro conditions, the inoculated plants had a greater leaf area (by 77%) and greater shoot and root dry weight (by 84 and 61%, respectively) than did the control plants. We recommend O. cytisi IPA 7.2 for use in the growing of potato microplants to improve the production of elite seed material.

Synergism of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (LSE-2) nodule endophyte with Bradyrhizobium sp. (LSBR-3) for improving plant growth, nutrient acquisition and soil health in soybean

The present study was aimed to assess the scope of native potential endophyte Pseudomonas aeruginosa (LSE-2) strain (KX925973) with recommended Bradyrhizobium sp. (LSBR-3) (KF906140) for synergistic effect to develop as consortium biofertilizer of soybean. A total of 28 non-rhizobial endophytic bacteria were isolated from cultivated and wild sp. of soybean. All isolates were screened for multifarious PGP traits viz. Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), phosphate (P) and zinc (Zn) solubilization, siderophore, cell wall degrading enzymes and pathogenicity. Compatible of LSBR-3 and LSE-2 enhanced IAA, P-solubilization, 1-aminocyclopropane-carboxylate deaminase and biofilm formation over the single inoculant treatment. Further, consortium was evaluated in vivo for growth, symbiotic traits, nutrient acquisition, soil quality parameters and yield attributes of soybean. Improvement in growth parameters were recorded with dual inoculant LSBR-3 + LSE-2 as compared to LSBR-3 alone and un-inoculated control treatments. Significantly (p ≥ 0.05) high symbiotic and soil quality parameters (phosphatase and soil dehydrogenase activity) was recorded with LSBR-3 + LSE-2 at vegetative and flowering stage as compared to LSBR-3 alone and un-inoculated control treatments. Single inoculation of LSBR-3 improved grain yield by 4.25% over the un-inoculated control treatment, further, enhancement in yield was recorded with consortium inoculant (LSBR-3 and LSE-2) by 3.47% over the LSBR-3 alone. Application of consortium inoculant (LSBR-3 + LSE-2) gave an additional income of Rs. 5089/ha over the un-inoculated control treatment. The results, thus strongly suggest that endophytic diazotroph LSE-2 can be used as potent bio-inoculant along with LSBR-3 as bio-enhancer for improving soybean productivity in a sustainable system.

Phytomodulatory effects of silver nanoparticles on Corchorus olitorius: Its antiphytopathogenic and hepatoprotective potentials

This study has reported the effects of biogenic silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using cocoa pod extract on physiological tolerance indices, antioxidant activity and hepatoprotective potentials of Corchorus olitorius as well as its efficiency for controlling soil phytopathogens. C. olitorius seeds were grown in soil prepared with water (control), 0.05, 0.1, 0.15 and 0.2 mg AgNPs/g soil. C. olitorus grown with AgNPs had significantly (p < 0.05) higher free radical scavenging ability, ferric reducing ability, percentage germination, vigour indices, longer roots and shoots as well as lower moisture content over control. C. olitorius grown with AgNPs attenuated hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)-mediated reduction in catalase concentrations and H₂O₂-induced malondialdehyde elevations in liver. Efficiency of AgNPs to reduce soil phytopathogens (fungi and nematodes) revealed significant (p < 0.05) reduction in the incidences of soil and shoot Meloidogyne spp., Aspergillus terreus, A. niger, Fusarium spp. and Cladosporium spp. with increase in concentrations of AgNPs. More efficiently, there was complete extermination of A. niger and Fusarium spp. in the leaves of C. olitorius grown with AgNPs. Results in this study have shown the positive influence of AgNPs on C. olitorius by strengthening its resistance against fungi, and nematodes, improvement of its shelf-life, modulation of antioxidant activities and promotion of liver-detoxifying potentials.

Phylogenetically diverse endophytic bacteria from desert plants induce transcriptional changes of tissue-specific ion transporters and salinity stress in Arabidopsis thaliana

Salinity severely hampers crop productivity worldwide and plant growth promoting bacteria could serve as a sustainable solution to improve plant growth under salt stress. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying salt stress tolerance promotion by beneficial bacteria remain unclear. In this work, six bacterial isolates from four different desert plant species were screened for their biochemical plant growth promoting traits and salinity stress tolerance promotion of the unknown host plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Five of the isolates induced variable root phenotypes but could all increase plant shoot and root weight under salinity stress. Inoculation of Arabidopsis with five isolates under salinity stress resulted in tissue-specific transcriptional changes of ion transporters and reduced Na⁺/K⁺ shoot ratios. The work provides first insights into the possible mechanisms and the commonality by which phylogenetically diverse bacteria from different desert plants induce salinity stress tolerance in Arabidopsis. The bacterial isolates provide new tools for studying abiotic stress tolerance mechanisms in plants and a promising agricultural solution for increasing crop yields in semi-arid regions.

Characterization of Hydrocarbon-Degrading Bacteria in Constructed Wetland Microcosms Used to Treat Crude Oil Polluted Water

Ten plant species were grown in constructed wetlands (CWs) to remediate water containing 2% (w/v) crude oil. The plant species with better growth and biomass production were Typha latifolia and Cyperus laevigatus, and they were significantly correlated (R² = 0.91) with hydrocarbon degradation. From T. latifolia and C. laevigatus, 33 hydrocarbon-degrading bacterial strains were isolated from the rhizosphere, and root and shoot interiors. More diversified bacteria were found in the rhizosphere and endosphere of C. laevigatus than those of T. latifolia. The predominant cultural hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria were shown to belong to the genera Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and Bacillus. In addition to genes involved in hydrocarbon degradation, most of the bacteria displayed multiple plant growth promoting (PGP) activities. This study suggests the importance of selecting suitable bacterial strains with hydrocarbon degradation and PGP activities for improving the efficacy of CWs used in remediating water contaminated with crude oil.

Potential of Novel Sequence Type of Burkholderia cenocepacia for Biological Control of Root Rot of Maize (Zea mays L.) Caused by Fusarium temperatum

In this study, two Burkholderia strains, strain KNU17BI2 and strain KNU17BI3, were isolated from maize rhizospheric soil, South Korea. The 16S rRNA gene and multilocus sequence analysis and typing (MLSA-MLST) were used for the identification of the studied strains. Strain KNU17BI2, which belonged to Burkholderia cenocepacia, was of a novel sequence type (ST) designated ST-1538, while strain KNU17BI3 had a similar allelic profile with the seven loci of Burkholderia contaminans strain LMG 23361. The strains were evaluated in vitro for their specific plant growth promoting (PGP) traits, such as zinc solubilization, phosphate solubilization, ammonia production, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase activity, indole acetic acid (IAA) production, siderophore, and hydrolytic enzyme activity. Interestingly, the strains exhibited a positive effect on all of the tested parameters. The strains also showed broad-spectrum antifungal activity against economically important phytopathogens in the dual culture assay. Furthermore, the strains were evaluated under greenhouse conditions for their in vivo effect to promote plant growth and to suppress the root rot of maize that is caused by Fusarium temperatum on four Korean maize cultivars. The results of the greenhouse study revealed that both of the strains were promising to significantly suppress fusarium root rot and enhance plant growth promotion on the four maize cultivars. This study, for the first time, reported in vitro antifungal potential of B. cenocepacia of novel ST against economically important plant pathogens viz., F. temperatum, Fusarium graminearum, Fusarium moniliforme, Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. melonis, Fusarium subglutinans, Phytophthora drechsleri, and Stemphylium lycopersici. This is also the first report of zinc solubilization by B. cenocepacia. Moreover, the present research work reports, for the first time, about the potential of B. cenocepacia and B. contaminans to control the root rot of maize that is caused by F. temperatum. Therefore, we recommend further studies to precisely identify the bioactive chemical compounds behind such activities that would be novel sources of natural products for biological control and plant growth promotion of different crops.

Identification and Characterization of Phomopsis amygdali and Botryosphaeria dothidea Associated with Peach Shoot Blight in Yangshan, China

Peach (Prunus persica (L.) Batsch) is produced locally in Yangshan, Wuxi City, China. In recent years, a widespread shoot blight has been observed in many peach orchards of Yangshan that kills the twigs and results in high losses in fruit production. Disease incidences ranged from 10 to 20% in the affected orchards and, in extreme cases, 40% of the trees were affected. Shoot blight of peach is caused by a fungus, previously identified as Phomopsis amygdali. Between 2014 and 2015, samples were collected four times from three peach orchards located in Yangshan to understand the etiology of shoot blight. Interestingly, two types of shoot blight symptoms were observed: one characterized by necrotic lesions with rings and one without rings. Based on conidial morphology, cultural characteristics, and analysis of nucleotide sequences of three genomic regions (the internal transcribed spacer region, a partial sequence of the β-tubulin gene, and the translation elongation factor 1-α), isolates were identified as P. amygdali and Botryosphaeria dothidea. Remarkably, most of the P. amygdali isolates were recovered from twigs showing necrotic lesions without rings. In contrast, most of the B. dothidea isolates were recovered from twigs with rings in the necrotic lesions. Correlations among pathogens, sampling regions, and disease symptoms were noted, and growth rates of these pathogens were characterized. Pathogenicity tests showed that B. dothidea isolates could induce necrotic lesions with rings but P. amygdali isolates could only induce necrotic lesions. Moreover, the B. dothidea isolates exhibited higher levels of virulence than P. amygdali isolates on the peach twig. Additionally, high frequencies of detection of both P. amygdali and B. dothidea from buds indicated that buds may be the primary site of fungal invasion. Cankers and necrotic twigs may also serve as infection courts. Our results suggest that B. dothidea and P. amygdali are the common causal agents of peach shoot blight in Yangshan, China. This finding provides a basis for the development of effective management strategies.

Mechanisms of Cr(VI) resistance by endophytic Sphingomonas sp. LK11 and its Cr(VI) phytotoxic mitigating effects in soybean (Glycine max L.)

Chromium Cr(VI) is highly toxic and leads to impaired phenotypic plasticity of economically important crops. The current study assessed an endophytic-bacteria assisted metal bio-remediation strategy to understand stress-alleviating mechanisms in Glycine max L (soybean) plants inoculated with Sphingomonas sp. LK11 under severe Cr(VI) toxicity. The screening analysis showed that high Cr concentrations (5.0 mM) slightly suppressed LK11 growth and metal uptake by LK11 cells, while significantly enhancing indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) production. Endophytic LK11 significantly upregulated its antioxidant system compared to control by enhancing reduced glutathione (GSH), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POD), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities to counteract Cr-induced oxidative stress. Cr toxicity induced cell morphological alteration, as shown by SEM-EDX analysis and triggered significant lipid peroxidation. The interaction between LK11 and soybean in Cr-contaminated soil significantly increased plant growth attributes and down-regulated the synthesis of endogenous defense-related phytohormones, salicylic acid and abscisic acid, by 20% and 37%, respectively, and reduced Cr translocation to the roots, shoot, and leaves. Additionally, Cr-induced oxidative stress was significantly reduced in LK11-inoculated soybean, regulating metal responsive reduced GSH and enzymatic antioxidant CAT. Current findings indicate that LK11 may be a suitable candidate for the bioremediation of Cr-contaminated soil and stimulation of host physiological homeostasis.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi mitigate negative effects of combined drought and heat stress on tomato plants

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis can alleviate drought and temperature stresses in plants, but it is unknown whether the benefits can be maintained when the plants are exposed to combined drought and heat stress. In this study, the impacts of AM fungi, Septoglomus deserticola and Septoglomus constrictum on tomato plant tolerance to combined drought and heat stress were investigated. No substantial differences in physiological parameters were found in all plants under non-stress conditions, except a higher expression of SlLOXD and SlPIP2.7 in plants + S. constrictum. Under drought, heat and drought + heat stress, both fungal symbionts could moderate oxidative stress by decreasing the lipid peroxidation, hydrogen peroxide level and improving leaf and root antioxidant enzyme activities, however better performance in plants + S. constrictum. Under drought and the combined stress, inoculation with S. constrictum enhanced stomatal conductance, leaf water potential and relative water content, elevated F_v/F_m and biomass production of the hosts as compared to non-inoculated plants whilst these improvements in plants + S. deserticola were not obvious. Under the combined stress inoculation of S. constrictum did not change the expression of SlNCED and SlPIP2.7 in roots as under heat stress. Expression of SlLOXD in root were upregulated in plants + S. contrictum under drought + heat stress as in mycorrhizal roots under drought stress. Altogether, our results indicated that AM inoculation, particularly with S. constrictum had a positive influence on the tomato plant tolerance to drought + heat stress. Further studies are essential to add some light on molecular mechanisms of mycorrhizal plant tolerance to this combined stress.

Rhizobium inoculation enhances copper tolerance by affecting copper uptake and regulating the ascorbate-glutathione cycle and phytochelatin biosynthesis-related gene expression in Medicago sativa seedlings

Despite numerous reports that legume-rhizobium symbiosis alleviates Cu stress in plants, the possible roles of legume-rhizobium symbiosis and the regulatory mechanisms in counteracting Cu toxicity remain unclear. Here, Sinorhizobium meliloti CCNWSX0020 was used for analyzing the effects of rhizobium inoculation on plant growth in Medicago sativa seedlings under Cu stress. Our results showed that rhizobium inoculation alleviated Cu-induced growth inhibition, and increased nitrogen concentration in M. sativa seedlings. Moreover, the total amount of Cu uptake in inoculated plants was significantly increased compared with non-inoculated plants, and the increase in the roots was much higher than that in the shoots, thus decreasing the transfer coefficient and promoting Cu phytostabilization. Cu stress induced lipid peroxidation and reactive oxygen species production, but rhizobium inoculation reduced these components' accumulation through altering antioxidant enzyme activities and regulating ascorbate-glutathione cycles. Furthermore, legume-rhizobium symbiosis regulated the gene expression involved in antioxidant responses, phytochelatin (PC) biosynthesis, and metallothionein biosynthesis in M. sativa seedlings under Cu stress. Our results demonstrate that rhizobium inoculation enhanced Cu tolerance by affecting Cu uptake, regulating antioxidant enzyme activities and the ascorbate-glutathione cycle, and influencing PC biosynthesis-related gene expression in M. sativa. The results provide an efficient strategy for phytoremediation of Cu-contaminated soils.

Trichoderma harzianum diminished oxidative stress caused by 2,4- dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) in wheat, with insights from lipidomics

2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is among the most commonly used herbicides applied for weed control during wheat cultivation. However, its application could affect wheat growth. The present study investigates the effect of the ascomycetous fungus Trichoderma harzianum on lipid peroxidation, phospholipids, signaling lipids and phospholipase D in the seedlings of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) treated with 2,4-D (2.5 mg L^-1). In the group of 4-day-old seedlings exposed to the herbicide, increased lipid peroxidation and inhibition of growth were observed in shoots and roots. Moreover, elevated levels of oxylipins were noted. Among them, the amount of 13-HOTrE oxygenated from linolenic acid (18:3) increased the most significantly. Concurrently, in the seedlings inoculated with T. harzianum, growth was stimulated when the level of phosphatidylcholine (PC) increased. Moreover, in wheat seedlings treated with 2,4-D and T. harzianum, the level of lipid peroxidation was similar to that in the control and there was no increase observed in oxylipins and phospholipase D activity. T. harzianum might have partly alleviated the toxic effect of 2,4-D on wheat seedlings.

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Favor the Initial Growth of Acacia mangium, Sorghum bicolor, and Urochloa brizantha in Soil Contaminated with Zn, Cu, Pb, and Cd

This study evaluated the effect of inoculation with a mixture of spores of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) (Glomus macrocarpum, Paraglomus occultum, and Glomus sp.) on the initial establishment of Acacia mangium, Sorghum bicolor, and Urochloa brizantha in soil contaminated with heavy metals. The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse, in plastic pots containing 1.8 kg of soil, which presented 7200, 1140, 480, and 72 mg of Zn, Cu, Pb, and Cd, respectively. The chlorophyll content (SPAD index) of inoculated plants of A. mangium and U. brizantha was higher than those of non-inoculated plants (p < 0.05). No differences were detected for the concentration of heavy metals in plant shoots, whether the plant was inoculated or not. However, inoculated plants had greater root length (S. bicolor and U. brizantha) (p < 0.05) and greater plant height (A. mangium) (p < 0.05). The present results demonstrate that the beneficial effects of AMF on plant growth and the alleviation of contaminants are imperative factors for the rehabilitation of soils contaminated with heavy metals.

Neoscytalidium dimidiatum Causing Canker, Shoot Blight and Fruit Rot of Almond in California

Almond trees with trunk and branch cankers were observed in several orchards across almond-producing counties in California. Symptoms of cankers included bark lesions, discoloration of xylem tissues, longitudinal wood necrosis, and extensive gumming. Spur and shoot blight associated with rotted fruit were detected in two orchards in Kern County. The fungus Neoscytalidium dimidiatum was consistently recovered from the various cankers, infected fruit, and blighted shoots and its identity was confirmed based on phylogenetic and morphological studies. Phylogenetic analyses of the internal transcribed spacer, translation elongation factor 1-α, and β-tubulin genes comparing 47 strains from California with reference specimens within the family Botryosphaeriaceae and coupled with detailed morphological observations validated the identity of the pathogenic fungus. Pathogenicity tests conducted in the field using 1- to 2-year-old branches inoculated with mycelium plugs or conidial suspensions and attached fruit inoculated with conidial suspensions fulfilled Koch's postulates. N. dimidiatum appeared highly virulent in almond-producing cankers of up to 22 cm in length within 4 weeks using mycelium plug inoculations as well as severe fruit rot combined with spur blight on the fruit-bearing spurs. This study reports, for the first time, the fungus N. dimidiatum as a pathogen of almond in California causing canker, shoot blight, and fruit rot. Disease symptoms are described and illustrated.

Lifespan and functionality of mycorrhizal fungal mycelium are uncoupled from host plant lifespan

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are obligate symbionts, living in associations with the roots of most land plants. AMF produce wide networks of extraradical mycelium (ERM) of indeterminate length, spreading from host roots into the surrounding soil and establishing belowground interconnections among plants belonging to the same or to different taxa. Whether their lifespan and functionality are limited by host plant viability or can be extended beyond this limit is unknown. To address this issue, we performed time-course studies to investigate viability and functionality of ERM produced in an in vivo whole-plant system by Funneliformis mosseae and Rhizoglomus irregulare, after shoot detachment. Our data revealed that viability and functionality of F. mosseae and R. irregulare extraradical hyphae were uncoupled from host plant lifespan. Indeed, ERM spreading from roots of intact or shootless plants showed comparable levels of viability, similar structural traits and ability to establish mycorrhizal symbioses with new plants, as long as five months after shoot removal. Our findings expand the current knowledge on AMF biology and life cycle, providing data on ERM long-term survival in the soil of two Glomeracean species, functional to the prompt establishment of mycorrhizal symbioses and to the maintenance of soil biological fertility.

Susceptibility of Hop Crown Buds to Powdery Mildew and its Relation to Perennation of Podosphaera macularis

In the Pacific Northwestern United States, the hop powdery mildew fungus, Podosphaera macularis, survives overwintering periods in association with living host tissue because the ascigerious stage of the pathogen is not known to occur in this region. Field experiments were conducted over a 5-year period to describe the overwintering process associated with crown bud infection and persistence of P. macularis. Surface crown buds increased in abundance and size beginning in early July and continuing until mid-September. Buds of varying sizes remained susceptible to powdery mildew until late September to early October in each of 3 years of experiments, with susceptibility decreasing substantially thereafter. Potted plants were inoculated sequentially during early summer to autumn, then evaluated in the following year for development of shoots colonized by the powdery mildew fungus (termed flag shoots) due to bud perennation. Emergence of flag shoots was asynchronous and associated with shoot emergence and elongation. Flag shoots emerged over a protracted period from late February to early June, year dependent. In all 4 years of experiments, some infected buds broke and produced flag shoots after chemical desiccation of shoots in spring, a common horticultural practice in hop production conducted to set training timing and eliminate initial inoculum. Flag shoots were most numerous when plants were inoculated with P. macularis in early summer and, consequently, when powdery mildew was present throughout the entire period of crown bud development. The number of flag shoots produced was reduced from 6.8- to 46.6-fold when comparing the latest versus earliest inoculation dates. However, all inoculation timings yielded flag shoots at some level, suggesting that bud infection that occurs over an extended period of time in the previous season may allow the fungus to perennate. In studies in two commercial hop yards in Washington State, fungicide applications made after harvest reduced the level of powdery mildew on leaves in the current year but did not significantly reduce flag shoots in the following year. Given that bud infection occurred over a 10-week period, flag shoots developed even when plants were exposed to inoculum in October and some flag shoots survived chemical pruning practices, management efforts seem best directed to both preventative measures to reduce the likelihood of bud infection and remedial practices to physically eliminate infected crown buds in the ensuing year.

Antibiotic producing endophytic Streptomyces spp. colonize above-ground plant parts and promote shoot growth in multiple healthy and pathogen-challenged cereal crops

The Streptomyces spp. used in this work were previously isolated as diazotrophic endophytes from sorghum stems. Here, we characterized the Streptomyces spp. for their colonization ability, plant growth promotion and protection against fungal disease in three cereals. In vitro analysis by dual culture study showed inhibitory effect on the rice pathogen Magnaporthe oryzae B157 along with inhibition of the ubiquitous phytopathogen Rhizoctonia solani by the Streptomyces spp. used in this study. The active compounds responsible for phytopathogen inhibition were extracted with ethyl acetate and tested positive against the fungal pathogens. GC-MS based identification of the active compounds responsible for fungal pathogen inhibition showed them to be 2-(chloromethyl)-2-cyclopropyloxirane, 2, 4- ditert-butylphenol and 1-ethylthio-3-methyl-1, 3-butadiene in extracts of culture supernatants from the three different strains respectively. EGFP tagged Streptomyces strains showed profuse colonization in roots as well as aerial parts of cereal plants. Direct inhibitory action against M. oryzae B157 and R. solani correlated with the observation that upon fungal pathogen challenge, the bacterized rice, sorghum and wheat plants showed significantly good plant growth, particularly in aerial parts as compared to unbacterized controls. In addition, benefit was seen in inoculated healthy plants in terms of increase in wet weight of roots and shoots as compared to the uninoculated controls. The mechanism of biocontrol also involved induction of plant defense response as evidenced by the upregulation of PR10a, NPR1, PAL and LOX2 in Streptomyces colonized plants.

Shoot Blight on Chinese Fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) is Caused by Bipolaris oryzae

Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) is a significant timber species that has been broadly cultivated in southern China. A shoot blight disease on Chinese fir seedlings was discovered in Fujian, China and a fungus was then consistently associated with the symptoms. This fungus was determined to be causing this disease, among others by fulfilling Koch's postulates. Based on morphological characteristics and multilocus phylogenetic analyses with the sequences of the internal transcribed spacer, partial glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase gene, partial translation elongation factor 1-α gene, and partial 28S large subunit ribosomal RNA gene, the fungus was identified as Bipolaris oryzae. These characteristics and phylogenetic analyses clearly support that this pathogen is different from B. sacchari, which was, until now, considered to be the causal agent of a similar blight on Chinese fir in Guangdong, China. The fungus was also shown to be strongly pathogenic to rice, one of the most susceptible hosts to B. oryzae. Crop rotation involving rice is often carried out with Chinese fir in southern China, a practice that most likely increases the risk of shoot blight on C. lanceolata. To our knowledge, shoot blight caused by B. oryzae is reported for the first time in a gymnosperm species.

Phytophthora cinnamomi

Phytophthora cinnamomi is one of the most devastating plant pathogens in the world. It infects close to 5000 species of plants, including many of importance in agriculture, forestry and horticulture. The inadvertent introduction of P. cinnamomi into natural ecosystems, including a number of recognized Global Biodiversity Hotspots, has had disastrous consequences for the environment and the biodiversity of flora and fauna. The genus Phytophthora belongs to the Class Oomycetes, a group of fungus-like organisms that initiate plant disease through the production of motile zoospores. Disease control is difficult in agricultural and forestry situations and even more challenging in natural ecosystems as a result of the scale of the problem and the limited range of effective chemical inhibitors. The development of sustainable control measures for the future management of P. cinnamomi requires a comprehensive understanding of the cellular and molecular basis of pathogen development and pathogenicity. The application of next-generation sequencing technologies to generate genomic and transcriptomic data promises to underpin a new era in P. cinnamomi research and discovery. The aim of this review is to integrate bioinformatic analyses of P. cinnamomi sequence data with current knowledge of the cellular and molecular basis of P. cinnamomi growth, development and plant infection. The goal is to provide a framework for future research by highlighting potential pathogenicity genes, shedding light on their possible functions and identifying suitable targets for future control measures.

TAXONOMY

Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands; Kingdom Chromista; Phylum Oomycota or Pseudofungi; Class Oomycetes; Order Peronosporales; Family Peronosporaceae; genus Phytophthora.

HOST RANGE

Infects about 5000 species of plants, including 4000 Australian native species. Host plants important for agriculture and forestry include avocado, chestnut, macadamia, oak, peach and pineapple.

DISEASE SYMPTOMS

A root pathogen which causes rotting of fine and fibrous roots, but which can also cause stem cankers. Root damage may inhibit water movement from roots to shoots, leading to dieback of young shoots. USEFUL WEBSITES: http://fungidb.org/fungidb/; http://genome.jgi.doe.gov/Phyci1/Phyci1.home.html; http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/assembly/GCA_001314365.1; http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/assembly/GCA_001314505.1.

High taxonomic diversity of cultivation-recalcitrant endophytic bacteria in grapevine field shoots, their in vitro introduction, and unsuspected persistence

Molecular and microscopic analyses reveal enormous non-cultivable endophytic bacteria in grapevine field shoots with functional significance. Diverse bacteria enter tissue cultures through surface-sterilized tissues and survive surreptitiously with varying taxonomic realignments. The study was envisaged to assess the extent of endophytic bacterial association with field shoot tissues of grapevine and the likelihood of introduction of such internally colonizing bacteria in vitro adopting molecular techniques targeting the non-cultivable bacterial community. PowerFood^®-kit derived DNA from surface-sterilized field shoot tips of grapevine Flame Seedless was employed in a preliminary bacterial class-specific PCR screening proving positive for major prokaryotic taxa including Archaea. Taxonomic and functional diversity were analyzed through whole metagenome profiling (WMG) which revealed predominantly phylum Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, and minor shares of Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and Deinococcus-Thermus with varying functional roles ascribable to the whole bacterial community. Field shoot tip tissues and callus derived from stem segments were further employed in 16S rRNA V3-V4 amplicon taxonomic profiling. This revealed elevated taxonomic diversity in field shoots over WMG, predominantly Proteobacteria succeeded by Actinobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and 15 other phyla including several candidate phyla (135 families, 179 genera). Callus stocks also displayed broad bacterial diversity (16 phyla; 96 families; 141 genera) bearing resemblance to field tissues with Proteobacterial dominance but a reduction in its share, enrichment of Actinobacteria and Firmicutes, disappearance of some field-associated phyla and detection of a few additional taxonomic groups over field community. Similar results were documented during 16S V3-V4 amplicon taxonomic profiling on Thompson Seedless field shoot tip and callus tissues. Video microscopy on tissue homogenates corroborated enormous endophytic bacteria. This study elucidates a vast diversity of cultivation-recalcitrant endophytic bacteria prevailing in grapevine field shoots, their in vitro introduction, and unsuspecting sustenance with possible silent participation in tissue culture processes.

Antioxidant enzymes in chickpea colonized by Piriformospora indica participate in defense against the pathogen Botrytis cinerea

Piriformospora indica, a root endophytic fungus, promotes growth of the economically important chickpea plant (Cicer arietinum Linn.) and protects it against the pathogenic fungus Botrytis cinerea. Biomass and root development were found to be significantly improved in chickpea plants colonized with P. indica as compared to the plants grown without P. indica as well as from the plants infected with the B. cinerea. Our PCR analyses showed that gradual increase in the colonization of P. indica in the plants result in the inhibition of the colonization of B. cinerea. P. indica colonized plants showed increased antioxidant enzyme activities. Interestingly, there were pronounced decrease in the antioxidant enzyme activities in shoots infected with B. cinerea and colonized with P. indica in alternate and simultaneous mode as compared to plants infected with B. cinerea alone. We conclude that P. indica helps plants to overcome the disease load by enhancing antioxidant enzyme defense system. Our data suggest that, bio-protective action of P. indica might be mediated via systemic induction of antioxidant defense in the host plants.

Antifungal genes expressed in transgenic pea (Pisum sativum L.) do not affect root colonization of arbuscular mycorrhizae fungi

Genetically modified crops have raised concerns about unintended consequences on non-target organisms including beneficial soil associates. Pea transformed with four antifungal genes 1-3 β glucanase, endochitinase, polygalacturonase-inhibiting proteins, and stilbene synthase is currently under field-testing for efficacy against fungal diseases in Canada. Transgenes had lower expression in the roots than leaves in greenhouse experiment. To determine the impact of disease-tolerant pea or gene products on colonization by non-target arbuscular mycorrhizae and nodulation by rhizobium, a field trial was established. Transgene insertion, as single gene or stacked genes, did not alter root colonization by arbuscular mycorrhiza fungus (AMF) or root nodulation by rhizobium inoculation in the field. We found no effect of transgenes on the plant growth and performance although, having a dual inoculant with both AMF and rhizobium yielded higher fresh weight shoot-to-root ratio in all the lines tested. This initial risk assessment of transgenic peas expressing antifungal genes showed no deleterious effect on non-target organisms.

Comparative transcriptional analysis of hop responses to infection with Verticillium nonalfalfae

KEY MESSAGE

Dynamic transcriptome profiling revealed excessive, yet ineffective, immune response to V. nonalfalfae infection in susceptible hop, global gene downregulation in shoots of resistant hop and only a few infection-associated genes in roots. Hop (Humulus lupulus L.) production is hampered by Verticillium wilt, a disease predominantly caused by the soil-borne fungus Verticillium nonalfalfae. Only a few hop cultivars exhibit resistance towards it and mechanisms of this resistance have not been discovered. In this study, we compared global transcriptional responses in roots and shoots of resistant and susceptible hop plants infected by a lethal strain of V. nonalfalfae. Time-series differential gene expression profiles between infected and mock inoculated plants were determined and subjected to network-based analysis of functional enrichment. In the resistant hop cultivar, a remarkably low number of genes were differentially expressed in roots in response to V. nonalfalfae infection, while the majority of differentially expressed genes were down-regulated in shoots. The most significantly affected genes were related to cutin biosynthesis, cell wall biogenesis, lateral root development and terpenoid biosynthesis. On the other hand, susceptible hop exhibited a strong defence response in shoots and roots, including increased expression of genes associated with plant responses, such as innate immunity, wounding, jasmonic acid pathway and chitinase activity. Strong induction of defence-associated genes in susceptible hop and a low number of infection-responsive genes in the roots of resistant hop are consistent with previous findings, confirming the pattern of excessive response of the susceptible cultivar, which ultimately fails to protect the plant from V. nonalfalfae. This research offers a multifaceted overview of transcriptional responses of susceptible and resistant hop cultivars to V. nonalfalfae infection and represents a valuable resource in the study of this plant-pathogen interaction.

Physiological and biochemical perspectives of non-salt tolerant plants during bacterial interaction against soil salinity

Climatic changes on earth affect the soil quality of agricultural lands, especially by increasing salt deposition in soil, which results in soil salinity. Soil salinity is a major challenge to growth and reproduction among glycophytes (including all crop plants). Soil bacteria present in the rhizosphere and/or roots naturally protect plants from the adverse effects of soil salinity by reprogramming the stress-induced physiological changes in plants. Bacteria can enrich the soil with major nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) in a form easily available to plants and prevent the transport of excess sodium to roots (exopolysaccharides secreted by bacteria bind with sodium ions) for maintaining ionic balance and water potential in cells. Salinity also affects plant growth regulators and suppresses seed germination and root and shoot growth. Bacterial secretion of indole-3-acetic acid and gibberellins compensates for the salt-induced hormonal decrease in plants, and bacterial 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase synthesis decreases ethylene production to stimulate plant growth. Furthermore, bacteria modulate the redox state of salinity-affected plants by enhancing antioxidants and polyamines, which leads to increased photosynthetic efficiency. Bacteria-induced accumulation of compatible solutes in stressed plants regulates plant cellular activities and prevents salt stress damage. Plant-bacterial interaction reprograms the expression of salt stress-responsive genes and proteins in salinity-affected plants, resulting in a precise stress mitigation metabolism as a defense mechanism. Soil bacteria increase the fertility of soil and regulate the plant functions to prevent the salinity effects in glycophytes. This review explains the current understanding about the physiological changes induced in glycophytes during bacterial interaction to alleviate the adverse effects of soil salinity stress.

Cultivation Versus Molecular Analysis of Banana (Musa sp.) Shoot-Tip Tissue Reveals Enormous Diversity of Normally Uncultivable Endophytic Bacteria

The interior of plants constitutes a unique environment for microorganisms with various organisms inhabiting as endophytes. Unlike subterranean plant parts, aboveground parts are relatively less explored for endophytic microbial diversity. We employed a combination of cultivation and molecular approaches to study the endophytic bacterial diversity in banana shoot-tips. Cultivable bacteria from 20 sucker shoot-tips of cv. Grand Naine included 37 strains under 16 genera and three phyla (Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Firmicutes). 16S rRNA gene-ribotyping approach on 799f and 1492r PCR-amplicons to avoid plant organelle sequences was ineffective showing limited bacterial diversity. 16S rRNA metagene profiling targeting the V3-V4 hypervariable region after filtering out the chloroplast (74.2 %), mitochondrial (22.9 %), and unknown sequences (1.1 %) revealed enormous bacterial diversity. Proteobacteria formed the predominant phylum (64 %) succeeded by Firmicutes (12.1 %), Actinobacteria (9.5 %), Bacteroidetes (6.4 %), Planctomycetes, Cyanobacteria, and minor shares (<1 %) of 14 phyla including several candidate phyla besides the domain Euryarchaeota (0.2 %). Microbiome analysis of single shoot-tips through 16S rRNA V3 region profiling showed similar taxonomic richness and diversity and was less affected by plant sequence interferences. DNA extraction kit ominously influenced the phylogenetic diversity. The study has revealed vast diversity of normally uncultivable endophytic bacteria prevailing in banana shoot-tips (20 phyla, 46 classes) with about 2.6 % of the deciphered 269 genera and 1.5 % of the 656 observed species from the same source of shoot-tips attained through cultivation. The predominant genera included several agriculturally important bacteria. The study reveals an immense ecosystem of endophytic bacteria in banana shoot tissues endorsing the earlier documentation of intracellular "Cytobacts" and "Peribacts" with possible roles in plant holobiome and hologenome.

Can Oak Powdery Mildew Severity be Explained by Indirect Effects of Climate on the Composition of the Erysiphe Pathogenic Complex?

Coinfection by several pathogens is increasingly recognized as an important feature in the epidemiology and evolution of plant fungal pathogens. Oak mildew is induced by two closely related Erysiphe invasive species (Erysiphe alphitoides and E. quercicola) which differ in their mode of overwintering. We investigated how climate influences the co-occurrence of the two species in oak young stands and whether this is important for the disease epidemiology. We studied the frequency of flag-shoots (i.e., shoots developing from infected buds, usually associated with E. quercicola) in 95 oak regenerations over a 6-year period. Additionally, in 2012 and 2013, the oak mildew severity and the two Erysiphe spp. relative frequencies were determined in both spring and autumn in 51 regenerations and 43 1-year-old plantations of oaks. Both the frequency of flag-shoots and the proportion of Erysiphe lesions with E. quercicola presence were related to climate. We showed that survival of E. quercicola was improved after mild winters, with increase of both the flag-shoot frequency and the proportion of Erysiphe lesions with E. quercicola presence in spring. However, disease severity was not related to any complementarity effect between the two Erysiphe spp. causing oak powdery mildew. By contrast, increased E. alphitoides prevalence in spring was associated with higher oak mildew severity in autumn. Our results point out the critical role of between-season transmission and primary inoculum to explain disease dynamics which could be significant in a climate-warming context.