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Bioprocess Strategies for Vitamin B12 Production by Microbial Fermentation and Its Market Applications. Bioengineering (Basel) 2022; 9:bioengineering9080365. [PMID: 36004890 PMCID: PMC9405231 DOI: 10.3390/bioengineering9080365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Revised: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Vitamin B12 is a widely used compound in the feed and food, healthcare and medical industries that can only be produced by fermentation because of the complexity of its chemical synthesis. For this reason, finding better producer strains and optimizing their bioprocesses have been the main focus of industrial producers over the last few decades. In this review, we initially provide a historical overview of vitamin B12 research and the main biosynthetic characteristics of the two microorganism families typically used for its industrial production: several strains of Propionibacterium freudenreichii and strains related to Pseudomonas denitrificans. Later, a complete summary of the current state of vitamin B12 industrial production as well as the main advances and challenges for improving it is detailed, with a special focus on bioprocess optimization, which aims not only to increase production but also sustainability. In addition, a comprehensive list of the most important and relevant patents for the present industrial strains is provided. Finally, the potential applications of vitamin B12 in different markets are discussed.
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Guetterman HM, Huey SL, Knight R, Fox AM, Mehta S, Finkelstein JL. Vitamin B-12 and the Gastrointestinal Microbiome: A Systematic Review. Adv Nutr 2021; 13:S2161-8313(22)00075-8. [PMID: 34612492 PMCID: PMC8970816 DOI: 10.1093/advances/nmab123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Vitamin B-12 deficiency is a major public health problem affecting individuals across the lifespan, with known hematological, neurological, and obstetric consequences. Emerging evidence suggests that vitamin B-12 may have an important role in other aspects of human health, including the composition and function of the gastrointestinal (gut) microbiome. Vitamin B-12 is synthesized and utilized by bacteria in the human gut microbiome and is required for over a dozen enzymes in bacteria, compared to only two in humans. However, the impact of vitamin B-12 on the gut microbiome has not been established. This systematic review was conducted to examine the evidence that links vitamin B-12 and the gut microbiome. A structured search strategy was used to identify in vitro, animal, and human studies that assessed vitamin B-12 status, dietary intake, or supplementation, and the gut microbiome using culture-independent techniques. A total of 22 studies (3 in vitro, 8 animal, 11 human observational studies) were included. Nineteen studies reported vitamin B-12 intake, status, or supplementation was associated with gut microbiome outcomes, including beta-diversity, alpha-diversity, relative abundance of bacteria, functional capacity, or short chain fatty acid production. Evidence suggests vitamin B-12 may be associated with changes in bacterial abundance. While results from in vitro studies suggest vitamin B-12 may increase alpha-diversity and shift gut microbiome composition (beta-diversity), findings from animal studies and observational human studies were heterogeneous. Based on evidence from in vitro and animal studies, microbiome outcomes may differ by cobalamin form and co-intervention. To date, few prospective observational studies and no randomized trials have been conducted to examine the effects of vitamin B-12 on the human gut microbiome. The impact of vitamin B-12 on the gut microbiome needs to be elucidated to inform screening and public health interventions. Statement of significance: Vitamin B-12 is synthesized and utilized by bacteria in the human gut microbiome and is required by over a dozen enzymes in bacteria. However, to date, no systematic reviews have been conducted to evaluate the impact of vitamin B-12 on the gut microbiome, or its implications for human health.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Samantha L Huey
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Rob Knight
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA,Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA,Department of Bioengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA,Center for Microbiome Innovation, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Allison M Fox
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Saurabh Mehta
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA,Division of Epidemiology, Department of Population Health Sciences, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA,Institute for Nutritional Sciences, Global Health, and Technology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
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The Potential Role of Vitamin B12 in the Prevention of COVID-19 Complications: A Narrative Review. JOURNAL OF PURE AND APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.22207/jpam.15.4.04] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The elderly are more prone to mortality from COVID-19 infection, as they are susceptible to develop acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). For COVID-19 patients with ARDS caused by sepsis or septic shock, high-dose parenteral vitamin B12 appears to be a potential new treatment option. Vitamin B12 may play a substantial impact in COVID-19 morbidity and mortality reduction owing to its function in DNA synthesis, cellular control, improvement of anti-inflammatory immune responses, and decrease of pro-inflammatory responses. This review aims to assess the functional role of Vitamin B12 in COVID-19 in terms of its immunomodulatory effect, role in cellular and humoral immunity and maintaining the gut microbe homeostasis. From data inception to June 2021, accessible electronic databases were searched for research/review articles reporting on the function of Vitamin B12 in COVID-19. Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, WHO worldwide research on COVID-19 and the clinical trials registration “https://clinicaltrials.gov/” were used to conduct the systematic search by using keywords: “COVID-19 and “Vitamin B12”. Also, based on these outcomes, it can be concluded that Vitamin B12 may have a potential role in preventing COVID-19 complications. Further, studies evaluating the role of Vitamin B12 in COVID-19 may open a new array of ideas on the optimal and the well-tolerated dose and timing of its administration in COVID-19 patients.
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Sobczyńska-Malefora A, Delvin E, McCaddon A, Ahmadi KR, Harrington DJ. Vitamin B 12 status in health and disease: a critical review. Diagnosis of deficiency and insufficiency - clinical and laboratory pitfalls. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 2021; 58:399-429. [PMID: 33881359 DOI: 10.1080/10408363.2021.1885339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) is an essential cofactor for two metabolic pathways. It is obtained principally from food of animal origin. Cobalamin becomes bioavailable through a series of steps pertaining to its release from dietary protein, intrinsic factor-mediated absorption, haptocorrin or transcobalamin-mediated transport, cellular uptake, and two enzymatic conversions (via methionine synthase and methylmalonyl-CoA-mutase) into cofactor forms: methylcobalamin and adenosylcobalamin. Vitamin B12 deficiency can masquerade as a multitude of illnesses, presenting different perspectives from the point of view of the hematologist, neurologist, gastroenterologist, general physician, or dietician. Increased physician vigilance and heightened patient awareness often account for its early presentation, and testing sometimes occurs during a phase of vitamin B12 insufficiency before the main onset of the disease. The chosen test often depends on its availability rather than on the diagnostic performance and sensitivity to irrelevant factors interfering with vitamin B12 markers. Although serum B12 is still the most commonly used and widely available test, diagnostics by holotranscobalamin, serum methylmalonic acid, and plasma homocysteine measurements have grown in the last several years in routine practice. The lack of a robust absorption test, coupled with compromised sensitivity and specificity of other tests (intrinsic factor and gastric parietal cell antibodies), hinders determination of the cause for depleted B12 status. This can lead to incorrect supplementation regimes and uncertainty regarding later treatment. This review discusses currently available knowledge on vitamin B12, informs the reader about the pitfalls of tests for assessing its deficiency, reviews B12 status in various populations at different disease stages, and provides recommendations for interpretation, treatment, and associated risks. Future directions for diagnostics of B12 status and health interventions are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agata Sobczyńska-Malefora
- The Nutristasis Unit, Viapath, St. Thomas' Hospital, London, UK.,Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Edgard Delvin
- Sainte-Justine UHC Research Centre, Montreal, Canada.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Montreal, Montreal, Canada
| | | | - Kourosh R Ahmadi
- Department of Nutrition & Metabolism, School of Biosciences and Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
| | - Dominic J Harrington
- The Nutristasis Unit, Viapath, St. Thomas' Hospital, London, UK.,Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
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McCaddon A, Regland B. COVID-19: A methyl-group assault? Med Hypotheses 2021; 149:110543. [PMID: 33657459 PMCID: PMC7890339 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2021.110543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2020] [Revised: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The socio-economic implications of COVID-19 are devastating. Considerable morbidity is attributed to ‘long-COVID’ – an increasingly recognized complication of infection. Its diverse symptoms are reminiscent of vitamin B12 deficiency, a condition in which methylation status is compromised. We suggest why SARS-CoV-2 infection likely leads to increased methyl-group requirements and other disturbances of one-carbon metabolism. We propose these might explain the varied symptoms of long-COVID. Our suggested mechanism might also apply to similar conditions such as myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome. The hypothesis is evaluable by detailed determination of vitamin B12 and folate status, including serum formate as well as homocysteine and methylmalonic acid, and correlation with viral and host RNA methylation and symptomatology. If confirmed, methyl-group support should prove beneficial in such individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew McCaddon
- Gardden Road Surgery, Rhosllanerchrugog Wrexham, LL14 2EN, UK.
| | - Björn Regland
- Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Gothenburg University, Gothenburg, Sweden.
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Abstract
Nine compounds are classified as water-soluble vitamins, eight B vitamins and one vitamin C. The vitamins are mandatory for the function of numerous enzymes and lack of one or more of the vitamins may lead to severe medical conditions. All the vitamins are supplied by food in microgram to milligram quantities and in addition some of the vitamins are synthesized by the intestinal microbiota. In the gastrointestinal tract, the vitamins are liberated from binding proteins and for some of the vitamins modified prior to absorption. Due to their solubility in water, they all require specific carriers to be absorbed. Our current knowledge concerning each of the vitamins differs in depth and focus and is influenced by the prevalence of conditions and diseases related to lack of the individual vitamin. Because of that we have chosen to cover slightly different aspects for the individual vitamins. For each of the vitamins, we summarize the physiological role, the steps involved in the absorption, and the factors influencing the absorption. In addition, for some of the vitamins, the molecular base for absorption is described in details, while for others new aspects of relevance for human deficiency are included. © 2018 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 8:1291-1311, 2018.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamid M Said
- University of California-School of Medicine, Irvine, California, USA.,VA Medical Center, Long Beach, California, USA
| | - Ebba Nexo
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Clinical Biochemistry, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
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Boot M, Sparrius M, Jim KK, Commandeur S, Speer A, van de Weerd R, Bitter W. iniBAC induction Is Vitamin B12- and MutAB-dependent in Mycobacterium marinum. J Biol Chem 2016; 291:19800-19812. [PMID: 27474746 PMCID: PMC5025670 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m116.724088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Revised: 07/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis can be treated with a 6-month regimen of antibiotics. Although the targets of most of the first-line antibiotics have been identified, less research has focused on the intrabacterial stress responses that follow upon treatment with antibiotics. Studying the roles of these stress genes may lead to the identification of crucial stress-coping mechanisms that can provide additional drug targets to increase treatment efficacy. A three-gene operon with unknown function that is strongly up-regulated upon treatment with isoniazid and ethambutol is the iniBAC operon. We have reproduced these findings and show that iniBAC genes are also induced in infected host cells, although with higher variability. Next, we set out to elucidate the genetic network that results in iniBAC induction in Mycobacterium marinum By transposon mutagenesis, we identified that the operon is highly induced by mutations in genes encoding enzymes of the vitamin B12 biosynthesis pathway and the vitamin B12-dependent methylmalonyl-CoA-mutase MutAB. Lipid analysis showed that a mutA::tn mutant has decreased phthiocerol dimycocerosates levels, suggesting a link between iniBAC induction and the production of methyl-branched lipids. Moreover, a similar screen in Mycobacterium bovis BCG identified that phthiocerol dimycocerosate biosynthesis mutants cause the up-regulation of iniBAC genes. Based on these data, we propose that iniBAC is induced in response to mutations that cause defects in the biosynthesis of methyl-branched lipids. The resulting metabolic stress caused by these mutations or caused by ethambutol or isoniazid treatment may be relieved by iniBAC to increase the chance of bacterial survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maikel Boot
- From the Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marion Sparrius
- From the Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Kin Ki Jim
- From the Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Susanna Commandeur
- From the Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Alexander Speer
- From the Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Robert van de Weerd
- From the Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wilbert Bitter
- From the Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Gopinath K, Moosa A, Mizrahi V, Warner DF. Vitamin B(12) metabolism in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Future Microbiol 2014; 8:1405-18. [PMID: 24199800 DOI: 10.2217/fmb.13.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis is included among a select group of bacteria possessing the capacity for de novo biosynthesis of vitamin B12, the largest and most complex natural organometallic cofactor. The bacillus is also able to scavenge B12 and related corrinoids utilizing an ATP-binding cassette-type protein that is distinct from the only known bacterial B12-specific transporter, BtuFCD. Consistent with the inferred requirement for vitamin B12 for metabolic function, the M. tuberculosis genome encodes two B12 riboswitches and three B12-dependent enzymes. Two of these enzymes have been shown to operate in methionine biosynthesis (MetH) and propionate utilization (MutAB), while the function of the putative nrdZ-encoded ribonucleotide reductase remains unknown. Taken together, these observations suggest that M. tuberculosis has the capacity to regulate core metabolic functions according to B12 availability - whether acquired via endogenous synthesis or through uptake from the host environment - and, therefore, imply that there is a role for vitamin B12 in pathogenesis, which remains poorly understood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krishnamoorthy Gopinath
- MRC/NHLS/UCT Molecular Mycobacteriology Research Unit & DST/NRF Center of Excellence for Biomedical TB Research, Institute of Infectious Disease & Molecular Medicine & Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Observatory 7925, Cape Town, South Africa
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